Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels - Civil Elements

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Table of Contents

• Errata
• Foreward
• CHAPTER 1 - PLANNING
  • 1.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 1.1.1 Tunnel Shape and Internal Elements
    • 1.1.2 Classes of Roads and Vehicle Sizes
    • 1.1.3 Traffic Capacity
  • 1.2 ALTERNATIVE ANALYSES
    • 1.2.1 Route Studies
    • 1.2.2 Financial Studies
    • 1.2.3 Types of Road Tunnels
    • 1.2.4 Geotechnical Investigations
    • 1.2.5 Environmental and Community Issues
    • 1.2.6 Operational Issues
    • 1.2.7 Sustainability
  • 1.3 TUNNEL TYPE STUDIES
    • 1.3.1 General Description of Various Tunnel Types
    • 1.3.2 Design Process
    • 1.3.3 Tunnel Cross-Section
    • 1.3.4 Groundwater Control
    • 1.3.5 Tunnel Portals
    • 1.3.6 Fire-Life Safety Systems
    • 1.3.7 Tunnel Drainage
  • 1.4 OPERATIONAL AND FINANCIAL PLANNING
    • 1.4.1 Potential Funding Sources and Cash Flow Requirements
    • 1.4.2 Conceptual Level Cost Analysis
    • 1.4.3 Project Delivery Methods
    • 1.4.4 Operation and Maintenance Cost Planning
• CHAPTER 2 - GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATION
  • 2.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 2.1.1 Design Standards
  • 2.2 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
    • 2.2.1 Maximum Grades
    • 2.2.2 Horizontal and Vertical Curves
    • 2.2.3 Sight and Braking Distance Requirements
    • 2.2.4 Other Considerations
  • 2.3 TRAVEL CLEARANCE
  • 2.4 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
    • 2.4.1 Typical Cross Section Elements
    • 2.4.2 Travel Lane and Shoulder
    • 2.4.3 Sidewalks/Emergency Egress Walkway
    • 2.4.4 Tunnel Drainage Requirements
    • 2.4.5 Ventilation Requirements
    • 2.4.6 Lighting Requirements
    • 2.4.7 Traffic Control Requirements
    • 2.4.8 Portals and Approach
• CHAPTER 3 - GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
  • 3.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 3.1.1 Phasing of Geotechnical Investigations
  • 3.2 INFORMATION STUDY
    • 3.2.1 Collection and Review of Available Information
    • 3.2.2 Topographical Data
  • 3.3 SURVEYS AND SITE RECONNAISSANCE
    • 3.3.1 Site Reconnaissance and Preliminary Surveys
    • 3.3.2 Topographic Surveys
    • 3.3.3 Hydrographical Surveys
    • 3.3.4 Utility Surveys
    • 3.3.5 Identification of Underground Structures and Other Obstacles
    • 3.3.6 Structure Preconstruction Survey
  • 3.4 GEOLOGIC MAPPING
  • 3.5 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS
    • 3.5.1 General
    • 3.5.2 Test Borings and Sampling
    • 3.5.3 Soil and Rock Identification and Classification
    • 3.5.4 Field Testing Techniques (Pre-Construction)
    • 3.5.5 Laboratory Testing
    • 3.5.6 Groundwater Investigation
  • 3.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
  • 3.7 SEISMICITY
  • 3.8 ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS DURING CONSTRUCTION
    • 3.8.1 General
    • 3.8.2 Geologic Face Mapping
    • 3.8.3 Geotechnical Instrumentation
    • 3.8.4 Probing
    • 3.8.5 Pilot Tunnels
  • 3.9 GEOSPATIAL DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
• CHAPTER 4 - GEOTECHNICAL REPORTS
  • 4.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 4.2 GEOTECHNICAL DATA REPORT
  • 4.3 GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN MEMORANDUM
  • 4.4 GEOTECHNICAL BASELINE REPORT
    • 4.4.1 Purpose and Objective
    • 4.4.2 General Considerations
    • 4.4.3 Guidelines for Preparing a GBR
• CHAPTER 5 - CUT AND COVER TUNNELS
  • 5.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 5.2 CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY
    • 5.2.1 General
    • 5.2.2 Conventional Bottom-Up Construction
    • 5.2.3 Top-Down Construction
    • 5.2.4 Selection
  • 5.3 SUPPORT OF EXCAVATION
    • 5.3.1 General
    • 5.3.2 Temporary Support of Excavation
    • 5.3.3 Permanent Support of Excavation
    • 5.3.4 Ground Movement and Impact on Adjoining Structures
    • 5.3.5 Base Stability
  • 5.4 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
    • 5.4.1 General
    • 5.4.2 Structural Framing
    • 5.4.3 Materials
    • 5.4.4 Buoyancy
    • 5.4.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints
    • 5.4.6 Waterproofing
  • 5.5 LOADS
    • 5.5.1 General
    • 5.5.2 Load Combinations
  • 5.6 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
    • 5.6.1 General
    • 5.6.2 Structural Analysis
  • 5.7 GROUNDWATER CONTROL
    • 5.7.1 Construction Dewatering
    • 5.7.2 Methods of Dewatering and Their Typical Applications
    • 5.7.3 Uplift Pressures and Mitigation Measures
    • 5.7.4 Piping and Base Stability
    • 5.7.5 Potential Impact of Area Dewatering
    • 5.7.6 Groundwater Discharge and Environmental Issues
  • 5.8 MAINTENANCE AND PROTECTION OF TRAFFIC
  • 5.9 UTILITY RELOCATION AND SUPPORT
    • 5.9.1 Types of Utilities
    • 5.9.2 General Approach to Utilities During Construction
• CHAPTER 6 - ROCK TUNNELING
  • 6.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 6.2 ROCK FAILURE MECHANISM
    • 6.2.1 Wedge Failure
    • 6.2.2 Stress Induced Failure
    • 6.2.3 Squeezing and Swelling
  • 6.3 ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATIONS
    • 6.3.1 Introduction
    • 6.3.2 Terzaghi's Classification
    • 6.3.3 RQD
    • 6.3.4 Q System
    • 6.3.5 Rock Mass Rating (RMR) System
    • 6.3.6 Estimation of Rock Mass Deformation Modulus Using Rock Mass Classification
  • 6.4 ROCK TUNNELING METHODS
    • 6.4.1 Drill and Blast
    • 6.4.2 Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM)
    • 6.4.3 Roadheaders
    • 6.4.4 Other Mechanized Excavation Methods
    • 6.4.5 Sequential Excavation Method (SEM)/ New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM)
  • 6.5 TYPES OF ROCK REINFORCEMENT AND EXCAVATION SUPPORT
    • 6.5.1 Excavation Support Options
    • 6.5.2 Rock Bolts
    • 6.5.3 Ribs and Lagging
    • 6.5.4 Shotcrete
    • 6.5.5 Lattice Girder
    • 6.5.6 Spiles and Forepoles
    • 6.5.7 Precast Segment Lining
  • 6.6 DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF TUNNEL SUPPORTS
    • 6.6.1 Empirical Method
    • 6.6.2 Analytical Methods
    • 6.6.3 Numerical Methods
    • 6.6.4 Pre-Support and Other Ground Improvement Methods
    • 6.6.5 Sequencing of Excavation and Initial Support Installation
    • 6.6.6 Face Stability
    • 6.6.7 Surface Support
    • 6.6.8 Ground Displacements
  • 6.7 GROUNDWATER CONTROL DURING EXCAVATION
    • 6.7.1 Dewatering at the Tunnel Face
    • 6.7.2 Drainage Ahead of Face from Probe Holes
    • 6.7.3 Drainage from Pilot Bore/Tunnel
    • 6.7.4 Grouting
    • 6.7.5 Freezing
    • 6.7.6 Closed Face Machine
    • 6.7.7 Other Measures of Groundwater Control
  • 6.8 PERMANENT LINING DESIGN ISSUES
    • 6.8.1 Introduction
    • 6.8.2 Rock Load Considerations
    • 6.8.3 Groundwater Load Considerations
    • 6.8.4 Drained Versus Undrained System
    • 6.8.5 Uplift Condition
    • 6.8.6 Waterproofing
• CHAPTER 7 - SOFTGROUND TUNNELING
  • 7.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 7.2 GROUND BEHAVIOR
    • 7.2.1 Soft Ground Classification
    • 7.2.2 Changes of Equilibrium during Construction
    • 7.2.3 The Influence of the Support System on Equilibrium Conditions
  • 7.3 EXCAVATION METHODS
    • 7.3.1 Shield Tunneling
    • 7.3.2 Earth Pressure Balance and Slurry Face Shield Tunnel Boring Machines
    • 7.3.3 Choosing between Earth Pressure Balance Machines and Slurry Tunneling Machines
    • 7.3.4 Sequential Excavation Method (SEM)
  • 7.4 GROUND LOADS AND ground-SUPPORT interaction
    • 7.4.1 Introduction
    • 7.4.2 Loads for Initial Tunnel Supports
    • 7.4.3 Analytical Solutions for Ground-Support Interaction
    • 7.4.4 Numerical Methods
  • 7.5 TUNNELING INDUCED SETTLEMENT
    • 7.5.1 Introduction
    • 7.5.2 Sources of Settlement
    • 7.5.3 Settlement Calculations
  • 7.6 IMPACT ON AND PROTECTION OF SURFACE FACILITIES
    • 7.6.1 Evaluation of Structure Tolerance to Settlement
    • 7.6.2 Mitigating Settlement
    • 7.6.3 Structure Protection
  • 7.7 SOIL STABILIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT
    • 7.7.1 Purpose
    • 7.7.2 Typical Applications
    • 7.7.3 Reinforcement Methods
    • 7.7.4 Micropiles
    • 7.7.5 Grouting Methods
    • 7.7.6 Ground Freezing
• CHAPTER 8 - DIFFICULT GROUND TUNNELING
  • 8.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 8.1.1 Instability
    • 8.1.2 Heavy Loading
    • 8.1.3 Obstacles and Constraints
    • 8.1.4 Physical Conditions
  • 8.2 INSTABILITY
    • 8.2.1 Non-Cohesive Sand and Gravel
    • 8.2.2 Soft Clay
    • 8.2.3 Blocky Rock
    • 8.2.4 Adverse Combinations of Joints and Shears
    • 8.2.5 Faults and Alteration Zones
    • 8.2.6 Water
    • 8.2.7 Mixed Face Tunneling
  • 8.3 HEAVING LOADING
    • 8.3.1 Squeezing Rock
    • 8.3.2 The Squeezing Process
    • 8.3.3 Yielding Supports
    • 8.3.4 TBM Tunneling
    • 8.3.5 Steel Rib Support System
    • 8.3.6 Concrete Segments
    • 8.3.7 TBM Tunneling System
    • 8.3.8 Operational Flexibility
    • 8.3.9 Swelling
    • 8.3.10 Swelling Mechanism
    • 8.3.11 Other Rock Problems
  • 8.4 OBSTACLES AND CONSTRAINTS
    • 8.4.1 Boulders
    • 8.4.2 Karstic Limestone
    • 8.4.3 Abandoned Foundations
    • 8.4.4 Shallow Tunnels
  • 8.5 PHYSICAL CONDITIONS
    • 8.5.1 Methane
    • 8.5.2 Hydrogen Sulfide
    • 8.5.3 High Temperatures
    • 8.5.4 Observations
• CHAPTER 9 - SEQUENTIAL EXCAVATION METHOD
  • 9.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 9.2 BACKGROUND AND CONCEPTS
  • 9.3 SEM REGULAR CROSS SECTION
    • 9.3.1 Geometry
    • 9.3.2 Dual Lining
    • 9.3.3 Initial Shotcrete Lining
    • 9.3.4 Waterproofing
    • 9.3.5 Final Tunnel Lining
  • 9.4 GROUND CLASSIFICATION AND SEM EXCAVATION AND SUPPORT CLASSES
    • 9.4.1 Rock Mass Classification Systems
    • 9.4.2 Ground Support Systems
    • 9.4.3 Excavation and Support Classes (ESC) and Initial Support
    • 9.4.4 Longitudinal Tunnel Profile and Distribution of Excavation and Support Classes
    • 9.4.5 Tunnel Excavation, Support, and Pre-Support Measures
    • 9.4.6 Example SEM Excavation Sequence and Support Classes
    • 9.4.7 Excavation Methods
  • 9.5 GROUND SUPPORT ELEMENTS
    • 9.5.1 Shotcrete
    • 9.5.2 Rock Reinforcement
    • 9.5.3 Lattice Girders and Rolled Steel Sets
    • 9.5.4 Pre-support Measures and Ground Improvement
    • 9.5.5 Portals
  • 9.6 STRUCTURAL DESIGN ISSUES
    • 9.6.1 Ground-Structure Interaction
    • 9.6.2 Numerical Modeling
    • 9.6.3 Considerations for Future Loads
  • 9.7 INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING
    • 9.7.1 General
    • 9.7.2 Surface and Subsurface Instrumentation
    • 9.7.3 Tunnel Instrumentation
    • 9.7.4 SEM Monitoring Cross Sections
    • 9.7.5 Interpretation of Monitoring Results
  • 9.8 CONTRACTUAL ASPECTS
    • 9.8.1 Contractor Pre-Qualification
    • 9.8.2 Unit Prices
  • 9.9 EXPERIENCED PERSONNEL IN DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
• CHAPTER 10 - TUNNEL LINING
  • 10.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 10.1.1 Load and Resistance factor Design (LRFD)
  • 10.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
    • 10.2.1 Lining Stiffness and Deformation
    • 10.2.2 Constructability Issues
    • 10.2.3 Durability
    • 10.2.4 High Density Concrete
    • 10.2.5 Corrosion Protection
    • 10.2.6 Lining Joints
  • 10.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
    • 10.3.1 Loads
    • 10.3.2 Load Combinations
    • 10.3.3 Design Criteria
    • 10.3.4 Structural Analysis
  • 10.4 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
    • 10.4.1 Description
    • 10.4.2 Design Considerations
    • 10.4.3 Materials
    • 10.4.4 Construction Considerations
  • 10.5 PRECAST SEGMENTAL LINING
    • 10.5.1 Description
    • 10.5.2 Design Considerations
    • 10.5.3 Materials
    • 10.5.4 Construction Considerations
  • 10.6 STEEL PLATE LINING
    • 10.6.1 Design Considerations
  • 10.7 SHOTCRETE LINING
  • 10.8 SELECTING A LINING SYSTEM
• CHAPTER 11 - IMMERSED TUNNELS
  • 11.1 INTRODUCTION
    • 11.1.1 Typical Applications
    • 11.1.2 Types of Immersed Tunnel
    • 11.1.3 Single Shell Steel Tunnel
    • 11.1.4 Double Shell
    • 11.1.5 Sandwich Construction
    • 11.1.6 Concrete Immersed Tunnels
  • 11.2 CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY
    • 11.2.1 General
    • 11.2.2 Trench Excavation
    • 11.2.3 Foundation Preparation
    • 11.2.4 Tunnel Element Fabrication
    • 11.2.5 Transportation and Handling of Tunnel Elements
    • 11.2.6 Lowering and Placing
    • 11.2.7 Element Placement
    • 11.2.8 Backfilling
    • 11.2.9 Locking Fill
    • 11.2.10 General Backfill
    • 11.2.11 Protection Blanket
    • 11.2.12 Anchor Release Protection
  • 11.3 LOADINGS
    • 11.3.1 General
    • 11.3.2 Loads
    • 11.3.3 Ship Anchors
    • 11.3.4 Ship Sinking
    • 11.3.5 Load Combinations
    • 11.3.6 Loads during Fabrication, Transportation and Placement
  • 11.4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
    • 11.4.1 General
    • 11.4.2 Structural Analysis
  • 11.5 WATERTIGHTNESS AND JOINTS BETWEEN ELEMENTS
    • 11.5.1 External Waterproofing of Tunnels
    • 11.5.2 Joints
    • 11.5.3 Design of Joints between Elements
• CHAPTER 12 - JACKED BOX TUNNELING
  • 12.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 12.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
  • 12.3 CENTRAL ARTERY/TUNNEL (CA/T) PROJECT JACKED BOX TUNNELS
  • 12.4 LOAD AND STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
    • 12.4.1 Ground Drag Load and Anti-Drag System (ADS)
    • 12.4.2 Jacking Load
  • 12.5 GROUND CONTROL
    • 12.5.1 Ground Freezing for CA/T Project Jacked Tunnels
    • 12.5.2 Face Loss
    • 12.5.3 Over Cut
  • 12.6 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
    • 12.6.1 Monitoring
    • 12.6.2 Vertical Alignment
    • 12.6.3 Horizontal Alignment
  • 12.7 REFERENCES
• CHAPTER 13 - SEISMIC CONSIDERATIONS
  • 13.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 13.2 DETERMINATION OF SEISMIC ENVIRONMENT
    • 13.2.1 Earthquake Fundamental
    • 13.2.2 Ground Motion Hazard Analysis
    • 13.2.3 Ground Motion Parameters
  • 13.3 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TUNNEL SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
    • 13.3.1 Seismic Hazard
    • 13.3.2 Geologic Conditions
    • 13.3.3 Tunnel Design, Construction, and Condition
  • 13.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE AND SCREENING GUIDELINES OF TUNNELS
    • 13.4.1 Screening Guidelines Applicable to All Types of Tunnels
    • 13.4.2 Additional Screening Guidelines for Bored Tunnels
    • 13.4.3 Additional Screening Guidelines for Cut-and-Cover Tunnels
    • 13.4.4 Additional Screening Guidelines for Immersed Tubes
  • 13.5 SEISMIC EVALUATION PROCEDURES - GROUND SHAKING EFFECTS
    • 13.5.1 Evaluation of Transverse Ovaling/Racking Response of Tunnel Structures
    • 13.5.2 Evaluation of Longitudinal Response of Tunnel Structures
  • 13.6 SEISMIC EVALUATION PROCEDURES - GROUND FAILURE EFFECTS
    • 13.6.1 Evaluation for Fault Rupture
    • 13.6.2 Evaluation for Landsliding or Liquefaction
• CHAPTER 14 - TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
  • 14.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 14.2 CONSTRUCTABILITY
  • 14.3 CONSTRUCTION STAGING AND SEQUENCING
    • 14.3.1 Construction Staging
    • 14.3.2 Construction Sequencing
  • 14.4 MUCKING AND DISPOSAL
  • 14.5 HEALTH & SAFETY
  • 14.6 COST DRIVERS AND ELEMENTS
    • 14.6.1 Physical Costs
    • 14.6.2 Economic Costs
    • 14.6.3 Political Costs
  • 14.7 SCHEDULE
  • 14.8 CLAIMS AVOIDANCE AND DISPUTES RESOLUTION
    • 14.8.1 Disputes Resolution
  • 14.9 RISK MANAGEMENT
• CHAPTER 15 - INSTRUMENTATION
  • 15.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 15.2 GROUND MOVEMENTS - VERTICAL & LATERAL DEFORMATIONS
    • 15.2.1 Purpose of Monitoring
    • 15.2.2 Equipment, Applications, Limitations
  • 15.3 MONITORING OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
    • 15.3.1 Purpose of Monitoring
    • 15.3.2 Equipment, Applications, Limitations
  • 15.4 TUNNEL DEFORMATION
    • 15.4.1 Purpose of Monitoring
    • 15.4.2 Equipment, Applications, Limitations
  • 15.5 DYNAMIC GROUND MOVEMENT - VIBRATIONS
    • 15.5.1 Purpose of Monitoring
    • 15.5.2 Equipment, Applications, Limitations
  • 15.6 GROUNDWATER BEHAVIOR
    • 15.6.1 Purpose of Monitoring
    • 15.6.2 Equipment, Applications, Limitations
  • 15.7 INSTRUMENTATION MANAGEMENT
    • 15.7.1 Objectives
    • 15.7.2 Planning of the Program
    • 15.7.3 Guidelines for Selection of Instrument Types, Numbers, Locations
    • 15.7.4 Remote (Automated) versus Manual Monitoring
    • 15.7.5 Establishment of Warning/Action Levels
    • 15.7.6 Division of Responsibility
    • 15.7.7 Instrumentation and Monitoring for SEM tunneling
• CHAPTER 16 - TUNNEL REHABILITATION
  • 16.1 INTRODUCTION
  • 16.2 TUNNEL INSPECTION AND IDENTIFICATION
    • 16.2.1 Inspection Parameter Selection
    • 16.2.2 Inspection Parameters
    • 16.2.3 General Notes in Field Books
    • 16.2.4 Field Notes
    • 16.2.5 Field Data Forms
    • 16.2.6 Photographic Documentation
    • 16.2.7 Survey Control
  • 16.3 GROUNDWATER INTRUSION
    • 16.3.1 General
    • 16.3.2 Repair Materials
  • 16.4 STRUCTURAL REPAIR - CONCRETE
    • 16.4.1 Introduction
    • 16.4.2 Surface Preparation
    • 16.4.3 Reinforcing Steel
    • 16.4.4 Repairs
    • 16.4.5 Shotcrete Repairs
  • 16.5 STRUCTURAL INJECTION OF CRACKS
  • 16.6 SEGMENTAL LININGS REPAIR
  • 16.7 STEEL REPAIRS
    • 16.7.1 General
  • 16.8 MASONARY REPAIR
  • 16.9 UNLINED ROCK TUNNELS
  • 16.10 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUPPORTED CEILINGS/HANGERS

• GLOSSARY
• REFERENCES

LIST OF APPENDICES

• APPENDIX A EXECUTIVE SUMMARY FOR 2005 SCAN STUDY FOR THE UNDERGROUND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS IN EUROPE
• APPENDIX B DESCRIPTIONS FOR ROCK CORE SAMPLES
• APPENDIX C CUT-AND-COVER TUNNEL DESIGN EXAMPLE
• APPENDIX D TUNNEL BORING MACHINES
• APPENDIX E ANALYTICAL CLOSED FORM SOLUTIONS
• APPENDIX F SEQUENTIAL EXCAVATION METHOD TUNNELING EXAMPLE
• APPENDIX G PRECAST SEGMENTAL TUNNEL LINING EXAMPLE
• APPENDIX H DEFICIENCY AND REFERENCE LEGENDS FOR IDENTIFICATION

List of Figures

• Figure 1-1 Glenwood Canyon Hanging Lake Tunnels
• Figure 1-2 Two Cell Rectangular Tunnel
• Figure 1-3 Circular Tunnel
• Figure 1-4 Horseshoe and Curvilinear (Oval) Tunnels
• Figure 1-5 A-86 Road Tunnel in Paris, France
• Figure 1-6 Chongming under the Yangtze River
• Figure 1-7 Fort McHenry Tunnel in Baltimore, MD
• Figure 1-8 Stacked Drift and final Mt Baker Tunnel, I-90, Seattle, WA
• Figure 1-9 "Park on the Lid" Seattle, Washington
• Figure 1-10 Preliminary Road Tunnel Type Selection Process
• Figure 1-11 Gotthard Tunnel Fire in October 2001
• Figure 1-12 Emergency Exit
• Figure 1-13 Emergency Alcove
• Figure 2-1 H3 Tetsuo Harano Tunnels in Hawaii
• Figure 2-2 Typical Two-Lane Tunnel Clearance Requirements
• Figure 2-3 A Typical Horseshoe Section for a Two-lane Tunnel
• Figure 2-4 Typical Two-Lane Road Tunnel Cross Section and Elements
• Figure 2-5 Typical Tunnel Roadway with Reduced Shoulder Widths
• Figure 2-6 Ventilation System with Jet Fans at Cumberland Gap Tunnel
• Figure 2-7 "Black Hole" and Proper Lighting
• Figure 2-8 Portal Structure for Cumberland Gap Tunnel
• Figure 3-1 Water Boring Investigation from a Barge for the Port of Miami Tunnel, Miami, FL
• Figure 3-2 Phased Geotechnical Investigations with Project Development Process
• Figure 3-3 3D Laser Scanning Tunnel Survey Results in Actual Scanned Points
• Figure 3-4 Cumberland Gap Tunnel Geological Profile
• Figure 3-5 Vertical Test Boring/Rock Coring on a Steep Slope
• Figure 3-6 Horizontal Borehole Drilling in Upstate New York
• Figure 3-7 Rotosonic Sampling for a CSO Tunnel Project at Portland, Oregon.
• Figure 3-8 Rock Core Scanning Equipment and Result
• Figure 3-9 Packer Pressure Test Apparatus for Determining the Permeability of Rock - Schematic Diagram and Detail of Packer Unit
• Figure 5-1 Cut and Cover Tunnel Bottom-Up Construction; Top-down Construction
• Figure 5-2 Cut-and-Cover Tunnel Bottom-Up and Top-down Construction Sequence
• Figure 5-3 Cut and Cover Construction using Side Slopes Excavation
• Figure 5-4 Sheet Pile Walls with Multi Level-Bracing
• Figure 5-5 Braced Soldier Pile and Lagging Wall
• Figure 5-6 Tie-back Excavation Support Leaves Clear Access
• Figure 5-7 Braced Slurry Walls
• Figure 5-8 Tangent Pile Wall Construction Schematic
• Figure 5-9 Tangent Pile Wall Support
• Figure 5-10 Completed Secant Pile Wall Plan View
• Figure 5-11 Tunnel Structure with Haunches
• Figure 5-12 Cut and Cover Tunnel Loading Diagram - Bottom Up Construction in Soil
• Figure 5-13 Cut and Cover Tunnel Loading Diagram Top-down Construction in Soil
• Figure 5-14 Typical Street Decking
• Figure 6-1 Progressive Failure in Unsupported Blocky Rock
• Figure 6-2 Prevention of Progressive Failure in Supported Blocky Rock
• Figure 6-3 A Relationship between Strain and Squeezing Potential of Rock Mass
• Figure 6-4 Correlation between RQD and Modulus Ratio
• Figure 6-5 Example of a Full-face Tunnel Blast
• Figure 6-6 Complex Round Hook-up
• Figure 6-7 Typical Blast Charges
• Figure 6-8 Drilling for a Tunnel Blast
• Figure 6-9 Chipping Process between Two Disc Cutters
• Figure 6-10 Rock Tunnel Boring Machine Face with Disc Cutters for Hard Rock, Australia.
• Figure 6-11 Classification of Tunnel Excavation Machines
• Figure 6-12 Typical Diagram for a Open Gripper Main Beam TBM
• Figure 6-13 Typical Diagram for Single Shield TBM
• Figure 6-14 Typical Diagram for Double Shield TBM
• Figure 6-15 TBM Utilization on Two Norwegian Tunnels
• Figure 6-16 AM 105 Roadheader, Australia
• Figure 6-17 Temporary Rock Dowel; Schematic Function of a Rock Dowel under Shear
• Figure 6-18 Typical Section of Permanent Rock Bolt
• Figure 6-19 Steel Rib Support
• Figure 6-20 Lattice Girder Configuration; Estimation of Cross Section for Shotcrete-encased Lattice Girders
• Figure 6-21 Spiling (Forepoling) Method of Supporting Running Ground
• Figure 6-22 A Typical Seven Segment and a Key Segment Precast Segment Lining: Circumferential Dowel; Radial Bolt
• Figure 6-23 Support Pressures and Bolt Lengths Used in Crown of Caverns
• Figure 6-24 Support Pressures and Bolt Lengths Used on Cavern Walls
• Figure 6-25 Rock Support Requirement using Rock Mass Quality Q System
• Figure 6-26 Ground Reaction Curves between Support Pressure and Displacement
• Figure 6-27 A Reinforced Rock Arch
• Figure 6-28 Support Systems: Concrete / Shotcrete Lining, Blocked Steel Set
• Figure 6-29 UNWEDGE Analysis: Wedges Formed Surrounding a Tunnel; Support Installation
• Figure 6-30 Design of Support System in FE Analysis
• Figure 6-31 Strength Factor Contours from Finite Element Analysis
• Figure 6-32 Graphical Result of Discrete Finite Element Analysis
• Figure 6-33 Elastic Approximation of Ground Displacements around a Circular Tunnel in Rock
• Figure 6-34 Ground Displacement Contours calculated by Finite Element Method
• Figure 6-35 Rock Loads for Permanent Lining Design: Uniform Roof and Side Loads; Eccentric Load
• Figure 6-36 Unlined Rock Tunnel in Zion National Park, Utah
• Figure 6-37 Empirical Groundwater Loads on the Underground Structures
• Figure 6-38 Head Loss across the Lining and Surrounding Ground
• Figure 6-39 Two Dimensional Finite Element Groundwater Flow Model Analysis
• Figure 6-40 Drained Waterproofing System
• Figure 6-41 Undrained Waterproofing System
• Figure 7-1 Patent Drawing for Brunel's Shield, 1818
• Figure 7-2 Digger Shield with Hydraulically Operated Breasting Plates on Periphery of Top Heading of Shield used to Construct Transit Tunnel.
• Figure 7-3 Cross-section of Digger Shield
• Figure 7-4 Earth Pressure Balance Tunnel Boring Machine
• Figure 7-5 Simplified Cross-section of Earth Pressure Balance Tunnel Boring Machine
• Figure 7-6 Slurry Face Tunnel Boring Machine
• Figure 7-7 Simplified Cross-section of Slurry Face Tunnel Boring Machine
• Figure 7-8 Loads on a Concrete Lining Calculated by Finite Element Analysis: Axial Force, Bending Movement, Shear Force
• Figure 7-9 Typical Settlement Profile for a Soft Ground Tunneling
• Figure 7-10 Assumptions for Width of Settlement Trough
• Figure 7-11 Example of Finite Element Settlement Analysis for Twin Circular Tunnels under Pile Foundations
• Figure 8-1 Flowing Sand in Tunnel
• Figure 8-2 Mixed Face Tunneling Example
• Figure 8-3 Yielding Support in Squeezing Ground
• Figure 8-4 Yielding Support Crushed to 20 cm
• Figure 9-1 Schematic Representation of Stresses around Tunnel Opening
• Figure 9-2 Schematic Representation of Relationships Between Radial Stress σr, Deformation of the Tunnel Opening δr, Supports p_i, and Time of Support Installation T
• Figure 9-3 Regular SEM Cross Section
• Figure 9-4 Three-Lane SEM Road Tunnel Interior Configuration
• Figure 9-5 Waterproofing System and Compartmentalization
• Figure 9-6 Typical Shotcrete Final Lining Detail
• Figure 9-7 Prototypical Excavation Support Class (ESC) Cross Section
• Figure 9-8 Prototypical Longitudinal Excavation and Support Class (ESC)
• Figure 9-9 Prototypical Longitudinal Profile
• Figure 9-10 Face Drilling for Drill-and-Blast SEM Excavation
• Figure 9-11 Shotcrete Lining Installed at the Face in a SEM Tunnel Excavated by Drill-and-Blast
• Figure 9-12 Road Header SEM Excavation in Medium Hard, Jointed Rock
• Figure 9-13 Soft Ground SEM Excavation Tunnel Using Backhoes
• Figure 9-14 Typical Tunnel Excavation with Tempory Middle Wall
• Figure 9-15 Spiling Pre-support by No.. 8 Solid Rebars
• Figure 9-16 Steel Pipe Installation for Pipe Arch Canopy
• Figure 9-17 Pre-support by Pipe Arch Canopy, Exposed Steel Pipes
• Figure 9-18 Pre-support at Portal Wall and Application of Shotcrete for Portal Face Protection
• Figure 9-19 Shotcrete Canopy Construction after Completion of Portal Collar and Pre-support
• Figure 9-20 Stress Flow around Tunnel Opening
• Figure 9-21 SEM Tunneling and Ground Disturbance
• Figure 9-22 Deformation Monitoring Cross Section Points
• Figure 9-23 Typical Deformation Monitoring Cross Section
• Figure 9-24 Prototypical Monitoring of a Surface Settlement Point Located above the Tunnel Centerline in a Deformation vs. Time and Tunnel Advance vs. Time Combined Graph
• Figure 9-25 Engineering Geological Tunnel Face Mapping
• Figure 10-1 Cumberland Gap Tunnel
• Figure 10-2 Baltimore Metro Precast Segment Lining
• Figure 10-3 Baltimore Metro Steel Plate Lining
• Figure 10-4 New Lehigh Tunnel on Pennsylvania Turnpike Constructed with Final Shotcrete Lining
• Figure 10-5 Cumberland Gap Tunnel Lining
• Figure 10-6 Cast-In-Place Concrete Lining, Washington DC
• Figure 10-7 Precast Segments for One Pass Lining, Forms Stripped
• Figure 10-8 Stacked Precast Segments for One-Pass Lining
• Figure 10-9 Stacked Precast Segments for Two-Pass Lining
• Figure 10-10 Steel Cage for Precast Segments for Two Pass Lining
• Figure 10-11 Radial Joints, Baltimore, MD
• Figure 10-12 Schematic Precast Segment Rings
• Figure 10-13 Mock-up of Precast Segment Rings
• Figure 10-14 Typical Steel Lining Section
• Figure 10-15 Typical Shotcrete Lining Detail
• Figure 11-1 Immersed Tunnel Illustration
• Figure 11-2 Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel
• Figure 11-3 Cross Harbour Tunnel Hong Kong
• Figure 11-4 BART Tunnel, San Francisco
• Figure 11-5 Double Shell - Second Hampton Road Tunnel, Virginia
• Figure 11-6 Fort McHenry Tunnel, Baltimore
• Figure 11-7 Schematic of Sandwich Construction
• Figure 11-8 Bosphorus Tunnel, Istanbul, Turkey
• Figure 11-9 Fort Point Channel Tunnel, Boston
• Figure 11-10 Fabrication Facility and Transfer Basin øresund Tunnel, Denmark
• Figure 11-11 Sealed Clam Shell Dredge
• Figure 11-12 Hong Kong Cross Harbour Tunnel is Nearly Ready for Side Launching.
• Figure 11-13 Osaka Port Sakishima Tunnel Transported to Site with Two Pontoon Lay Barges
• Figure 11-14 Catamaran Lay Barge
• Figure 11-15 A Tunnel Element is Being Placed
• Figure 11-16 Graph of Dynamic Load Factor Against Td / T
• Figure 11-17 Gina-Type Seal
• Figure 11-18 Omega Type Seal
• Figure 11-19 Gina-type Immersion Gasket at Fort Point Channel, Boston, MA
• Figure 12-1 Completed I-90 Tunnels
• Figure 12-2 Typical Jacked Box Tunneling Sequence under an Existing Rail Track
• Figure 12-3 Generalized Subsurface Profile for the I-90 Jacked Box Tunnels
• Figure 12-4 Tunnel Structure Construction Operation
• Figure 12-5 Excavation of the Frozen Ground at the Front of the Tunnel Shield by Roadheader
• Figure 12-6 Scoop Tram Loading Excavated Material into Skip Bucket for Removal
• Figure 12-7 Close Up of High Capacity Hydraulic Jacks, Reaction Blocks, and Packers
• Figure 12-8 Installation of Packer Sections and Connecting Diaphragm Plates.
• Figure 12-9 Progressive Installation of Packer Sections and Connecting Diaphragm Plates.
• Figure 12-10 Schematic Arrangement of Freeze Pipes to Freeze Ground Mass Prior to Tunnel Jacking
• Figure 12-11 Arrangement of an Individual Freeze Pipe showing Brine Circulation
• Figure 12-12 Ground Freezing System in Operation while Commuter Trains Run Through the Area
• Figure 12-13 Frozen Face Seen from Shield at Front of Jacked Box Structure
• Figure 13-1 Major Tectonic Plates and Their Approximate Direction of Movement.
• Figure 13-2 Types of Fault Movement
• Figure 13-3 Comparison of Earthquake Magnitude Scales
• Figure 13-4 Definition of Basic Fault Geometry Including Hypocenter and Epicenter
• Figure 13-5 National Ground Motion Hazard Map by USGS
• Figure 13-6 General Procedure for Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
• Figure 13-7 Design Response Spectra Constructed Using the NEHRP Procedure
• Figure 13-8 Highway Tunnel Lining Falling Off from Tunnel Crown
• Figure 13-9 Summary of Observed Bored/Mined Tunnel Damage under Ground Shaking Effects
• Figure 13-10 Fracture at Base of Columns of Cut-and-Cover Tunnel between Daikai and Nagata Stations
• Figure 13-11 Shear Failure of Top of Columns of Cut-and-Cover Tunnel Between Daikai and Nagata Stations
• Figure 13-12 Daikai Subway Station Collapse
• Figure 13-13 Tunnel Transverse Ovaling and Racking Response to Vertically Propagating Shear Waves
• Figure 13-14 Tunnel Longitudinal Axial and Curvature Response to Traveling Waves
• Figure 13-15 Shear Distortion of Ground - Free-Field Condition vs. Cavity In-Place Condition
• Figure 13-16 Lining Response Coefficient, K1
• Figure 13-17 Lining Response Coefficient, K2, for Poisson's Ratio = 0.2
• Figure 13-18 Lining Response Coefficient, K2, for Poisson's Ratio = 0.35
• Figure 13-19 Lining Response Coefficient, K2, for Poisson's Ratio = 0.5
• Figure 13-20 Soil Deformation Profile and Racking Deformation of a Box Structure
• Figure 13-21 Racking Coefficient R_r for Rectangular Tunnels
• Figure 13-22 Simplified Racking Frame Analysis of a Rectangular Tunnel
• Figure 13-23 Example of Two-dimensional Continuum Finite Element Model in Pseudo-Dynamic Displacement Time-History Analysis
• Figure 13-24 Sample Dynamic Time History Analysis Model
• Figure 13-25 Maximum Surface Fault Displacement vs. Earthquake Moment Magnitude, M_w
• Figure 13-26 Analytical Model of Tunnel at Fault Crossing
• Figure 13-27 Tunnel-Ground Interaction Model at Fault Crossing
• Figure 13-28 Analytical Model of Ground Restraint for Tunnel at Fault Crossing
• Figure 14-1 Confined Worksite and Staging Area
• Figure 14-2 Tunnel Portal
• Figure 14-3 Horizontal Muck Conveyor
• Figure 14-4 Muck Train Dumping at Portal
• Figure 14-5 Surface Muck Storage Area
• Figure 14-6 Fire in Work Shaft
• Figure 14-7 Risk Management Process
• Figure 14-8 Typical Project Risk Matrix
• Figure 14-9 Risk Management throughout the Project Cycle
• Figure 15-1 Deep Benchmark
• Figure 15-2 Survey Point
• Figure 15-3 Survey Point in Rigid Pavement Surface
• Figure 15-4 Schematic of Borros Point
• Figure 15-5 Schematic of Probe Extensometer with Magnet/Reed Switch Tansducer, Installed in a Borehole
• Figure 15-6 Multiple Position Borehole Extensometer Installed from Ground Surface
• Figure 15-7 Horizontal Borehole Extensometer Installed from Advancing Excavation
• Figure 15-8 Triple Height Telltale or Roof Monitor
• Figure 15-9 Heave Cage
• Figure 15-10 Principal of Conventional Inclinometer Operation
• Figure 15-11 In-Place Inclinometer
• Figure 15-12 Tape Extensometer Typical Detail
• Figure 15-13 Typical Convergence Bolt Installation Arrangement
• Figure 15-14 Deformation Monitoring Point in Masonry or Concrete Slab
• Figure 15-15 Structure Monitoring Point in Vertical Masonry or Concrete Surface
• Figure 15-16 Robotic Total Station Instrument
• Figure 15-17 Target Prism for Robotic Total Station
• Figure 15-18 Biaxial Tiltmeter
• Figure 15-19 Horizontal In-Place Inclinometer
• Figure 15-20 Multipoint Closed Liquid Level System
• Figure 15-21 Open Channel Liquid Level System
• Figure 15-22 Schematic of Electrolytic Level Tilt Sensor
• Figure 15-23 Grid Crack Gauge
• Figure 15-24 Electrical Crack Gauge
• Figure 15-25 Deformation Monitoring Point in Vertical Masonry or Concrete Surface
• Figure 15-26 Inclinometer Casing in Slurry Wall
• Figure 15-27 Surface Mounted Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge
• Figure 15-28 Schematic of Electrical Resistance Load Cell
• Figure 15-29 Schematic of Observation Well
• Figure 15-30 Schematic of Open Standpipe Piezometer Installed in Borehole
• Figure 15-31 Schematic of Multiple Full-Grouted Piezometers in One Borehole
• Figure 16-1 Typical Cut and Cover Inspection Surfaces and Limits
• Figure 16-2 Delineation of Typical Circular Tunnel
• Figure 16-3 Typical Injection Ports for Chemical Grout
• Figure 16-4 Leak Injection, Tuscarora Tunnel PA Turnpike
• Figure 16-5 Typical Location of Injection Ports and Leaking Crack Repair Detail
• Figure 16-6 Negative Side Cementitious Coating, Tuscarora Tunnel PA Turnpike
• Figure 16-7 Substrate After Hydro-demolition, Shawmut Jct. Boston
• Figure 16-8 Typical Mechanical Couple for Reinforcing Steel
• Figure 16-9 Shallow Spall Repair
• Figure 16-10 Typical Sections at Concrete Repair
• Figure 16-11 Reinforcing Nozzleman Applying Wet Process Shortcete, USPS Tunnel Chicago
• Figure 16-12 Reinforcing Steel for Repair, Sumner Tunnel Boston
• Figure 16-13 Shotcrete Finishing, Shawmut Jct. Boston
• Figure 16-14 Typical Structural Crack Injection
• Figure 16-15 Cast Steel Segmental Liner Repair
• Figure 16-16 Cast Iron Segmental Segment Mock-up Filling with Shotcrete, MBTA Boston
• Figure 16-17 Typical Framing Steel Repair at Temporary Incline
• Figure 16-18 Typical Masonry Repair
• Figure 16-19 Rock Tunnel with Shotcrete Wall Repair and Arch Liner
• Figure 16-20 Rock bolts Supporting Liner, I-75 Lima Ohio Underpass

LIST OF TABLES

• Table 3-1 Sources of Information Data
• Table 3-2 Special Investigation Needs Related to Tunneling Methods
• Table 3-3 Geotechnical Investigation Needs Dictated by Geology
• Table 3-4 Guidelines for Vertical/Inclined Borehole Spacing
• Table 3-5 In-situ Testing Methods Used in Soil
• Table 3-6 Common in situ Test Methods for Rock
• Table 3-7 Applications for Geophysical Testing Methods
• Table 3-8 Geophysical Testing Methods
• Table 3-9 Common Laboratory Tests for Rock
• Table 4-1 Sample Outline for Geotechnical Data Reports
• Table 4-2 Sample Outline for Geotechnical Design Memorandum
• Table 4-3 Checklist for Geotechnical Baseline Reports
• Table 5-1 Cut and Cover Tunnel LRFD Load Combination Table
• Table 6-1 Terzaghi's Rock Mass Classification
• Table 6-2 Classification of Individual Parameters for Q System
• Table 6-3 Rock Mass Rating System
• Table 6-4 Estimation of Rock Mass Deformation Modulus Using Rock Mass Classification
• Table 6-5 Estimation of Disturbance Factor, D
• Table 6-6 Types of Rock Bolts
• Table 6-7 Typical Initial Support and Lining Systems Used in the Current Practice
• Table 6-8 Suggested Rock Loadings from Terzaghi's Rock Mass Classification
• Table 6-9 Guidelines for Excavation and Support of 10 m Span Rock Tunnels in Accordance with RMR Systems
• Table 6-10 Excavation Support Ratio Values for Various Underground Structures
• Table 6-11 Analytical Solutions for Support Stiffness and Maximum Support Pressure for Various Support Systems
• Table 6-12 Numerical Modeling Programs used in Tunnel Design and Analysis
• Table 7-1 Tunnelman's Ground Classification for Soils
• Table 7-2 Tunnel Behavior for Clayey Soils and Silty Sand
• Table 7-3 Tunnel Behavior: Sands and Gravels
• Table 7-4 Shield Tunneling Methods in Soft Ground
• Table 7-5 Soft-ground Characteristics
• Table 7-6 Initial Support Loads for Tunnels in Soft Ground
• Table 7-7 Relationship between Volumes Loss and Construction Practice and Ground Conditions
• Table 7-8 Limiting Angular Distortion
• Table 7-9 Damage Risk Assessment Chart
• Table 7-10 Ground Treatment Methods
• Table 7-11 Summary of Jet Grouting System Variables and their Impact on Basic Design Elements
• Table 9-1 Elements of Commonly Used Excavation and Support Classes (ECS) in Rock
• Table 9-2 Elements of Commonly Used Soft Ground Excavation and Support Classes (ECS) in Soft Ground
• Table 9-3 Example SEM Excavation and Support Classes in Rock
• Table 9-4 Example SEM Excavation and Support Classes in Soft Ground
• Table 9-5 Commonly used Rock Reinforcement Elements and Application Considerations for SEM Tunneling in Rock
• Table 10-1 Load Factor and Load Combination Table
• Table 10-2 Percentage of Lining Radius Change in Soil
• Table 11-1 Permanent In-Service Load Combinations
• Table 11-2 Construction Load Combinations
• Table 13-1 Ground Motion Attenuation with Depth
• Table 16-1 Common U.S. Descriptions of Tunnel Leakage
• Table 16-2 Typical Grouts for Leak Sealing
• Table 16-3 Comparison of Repair Materials