Achieving a High Level of Smoothness in Concrete Pavements Without Sacrificing Long-Term Performance

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND PROJECT OBJECTIVES
  • Initial Smoothness of Concrete Pavements
  • Project Objectives
  • Research Approach
  • Organization of the Report
• CHAPTER 2. PAVEMENT SMOOTHNESS MEASUREMENTS
  • Equipment for Smoothness Measurement
    • Profilographs
    • Inertial Profilers
  • Smoothness Indices
    • Profile Index
    • International Roughness Index
    • Ride Number
  • Smoothness Specifications
• CHAPTER 3. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FACTORS THAT AFFECT INITIAL SMOOTHNESS
  • Introduction
  • Pavement Design Factors
    • Base/Subbase
    • Horizontal Alignment
    • Embedded Items
  • Concrete Mix Design
    • Mix Design and Proportions
    • Aggregate
    • Admixtures
    • Influence of Ride Specification
  • Construction Operations
    • Stringline Setup and Maintenance
    • Grade Preparation
    • Concrete Consistency
    • Concrete Delivery
    • Construction Equipment
    • Slipform Paver Operation
    • Finishing, Texturing, Curing, and Headers
    • Dowel Baskets and Reinforcement
    • Vertical Grades and Curves
    • Skilled and Motivated Crew
• CHAPTER 4. ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
  • Introduction
  • Analysis of LTPP Data
  • Concrete Slab Curvature
  • Data Filtering
  • Analysis to Determine Short-Term Changes In Roughness
    • Roughness Profiles
    • Power Spectral Density Plots
• CHAPTER 5. ANALYSIS OF DATA FROM THE LONG-TERM PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE DATABASE
  • LTPP Program
  • GPS-3 Sections in the LTPP Database
  • Roughness Progression at GPS-3 Sections
    • Nondoweled Sections
    • Doweled Sections
    • Comparison Between Doweled and Nondoweled Sections
  • Effect of Faulting on Roughness
    • Nondoweled Sections
    • Doweled Sections
    • Comparison Between Doweled and Nondoweled Sections
  • Effect of Slab Curvature on Roughness
    • Theoretical Evaluation of Pure Slab Curvature on IRI
    • Nondoweled Sections
    • Doweled Sections
    • Comparison Between Doweled and Nondoweled Sections
  • Factors Affecting Roughness Progression in Concrete Pavements
    • Effect of Pavement Design Factors
    • Effect of Traffic
    • Effect of Environmental Conditions
    • Effect of Concrete Properties
  • GPS-3 Sections Showing a High Rate of Increase of Roughness
    • Nondoweled Sections
    • Doweled Sections
    • Discussion of Observations
• CHAPTER 6. SHORT-TERM CHANGES IN INITIAL SMOOTHNESS OF CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
  • Introduction
  • State Route 6220 Project-Pennsylvania
    • Project Description
    • Pavement Details
    • Concrete Mix Design
    • Paving Details
    • Profiling of Section
    • Roughness Indices
    • Repeatability of IRI Values
    • Effect of Condition of Joint on Profile Data
    • Roughness Profiles
    • Evaluation of Profile Data
    • Coefficient of Thermal Expansion And Microscopical Examination
    • Summary
  • U.S. 20 Project in IOWA
    • Project Description
    • Pavement Details
    • Concrete Mix Design
    • Paving Details
    • Profiling of Section
    • Roughness Indices
    • Repeatability of IRI Values
    • Effect of Joint Condition on Profile Data
    • Roughness Profiles
    • Evaluation of Profile Data
    • Coefficient of Thermal Expansion And Microscopical Examination
    • Summary
  • I-80 Project in IOWA
    • Project Description
    • Pavement Details
    • Concrete Mix Design
    • Paving Details
    • Profiling of Section
    • Roughness Indices
    • Repeatability of IRI Values
    • Effect of Condition of Joint on Profile Data
    • Roughness Profiles
    • Evaluation of Profile Data
    • Coefficient of Thermal Expansion And Microscopical Examination
    • Summary
  • U.S. 23 Project in Michigan
    • Project Description
    • Pavement Details
    • Concrete Mix Design
    • Paving Details
    • Profiling of Section
    • Roughness Indices
    • Repeatability of IRI Values
    • Effect of Joint Condition on Profile Data
    • Roughness Profiles
    • Evaluation of Profile Data
    • Coefficient of Thermal Expansion And Microscopical Examination
    • Summary
  • I-69 Project in Michigan
    • Project Description
    • Pavement Details
    • Concrete Mix Design
    • Paving Details
    • Profiling of Section
    • Roughness Indices
    • Repeatability of IRI Values
    • Effect of Joint Condition on Profile Data
    • Roughness Profiles
    • Evaluation of Profile Data
    • Coefficient of Thermal Expansion And Microscopical Examination
    • Summary
• CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS
  • Performance of Doweled and Nondoweled Pavements
    • Roughness Progression
    • Faulting
    • Slab Curvature
  • Factors Affecting Roughness Progression
    • Nondoweled Pavements
    • Doweled Pavements
  • Effect of Joints on Profile and Smoothness Indices
  • Short-Term Changes in Profile and Smoothness
    • Slab Curvature
    • Changes in IRI
    • Changes in RN
  • Measurement of Smoothness for Construction Acceptance
    • Surface Condition
    • Repeatability of IRI
    • Repeatability of Short-Interval IRI
    • Certification of Profilers
    • Time for Profiling
  • Use of Profile Data for Constructing Smooth Pavements
  • Construction Considerations
  • Effect of Mix Designs on Smoothness
• CHAPTER 8. RECOMMENDATIONS AND GUIDELINES
  • Value of Building Smooth Pavements
  • Design Features
  • PCC Material Properties
  • Construction Considerations
  • Measurement of Smoothness
  • Use of Profile Data for Constructing Smooth Pavements

• APPENDIX A. CURVATURE INDEX
• APPENDIX B. GPS-3 SECTIONS USED FOR ANALYSIS
• APPENDIX C. FAULTING AT GPS SECTIONS
• APPENDIX D. CURVATURE INDEX VALUES FOR GPS-3 SECTIONS
• REFERENCES

LIST OF FIGURES

• Figure 1. Truss-type California profilograph
• Figure 2. Desired and actual frequency response of 12-wheel California style profilograph
• Figure 3. High-speed profiler
• Figure 4. Lightweight profiler
• Figure 5. Components of an inertial profiler
• Figure 6. Example of an outlined trace
• Figure 7. Determining PI from a profilograph trace
• Figure 8. Illustration of computer algorithm used to compute IRI
• Figure 9. Response of IRI filter
• Figure 10. Sensitivity of PI for a slope sinusoid
• Figure 11. Percent of combined aggregate retained
• Figure 12. Workability factor versus coarseness factor chart
• Figure 13. Aggregate gradation for a concrete project with poor performance
• Figure 14. Example of a box plot
• Figure 15. Sign convention for slab curvature
• Figure 16. Profile recorded by profiler
• Figure 17. Profile after being subjected to a 5-m (16-ft) high-pass filter
• Figure 18. Profile after being subjected to a 10-m (33-ft) low-pass filter
• Figure 19. Profile after being subjected to a band-pass filter
• Figure 20. Roughness of a roadway expressed in 10-m (33-ft) segment lengths
• Figure 21. Example of a roughness profile
• Figure 22. Example of a PSD plot
• Figure 23. Environmental zones in the LTPP program
• Figure 24. Roughness progression of nondoweled sections, rate of change of IRI < 0.02 m/km/yr
• Figure 25. Roughness progression of nondoweled sections, rate of change of IRI between 0.02 and 0.04 m/km/yr
• Figure 26. Roughness progression of nondoweled sections, rate of change of IRI > 0.04 m/km/yr
• Figure 27. Roughness progression of doweled sections, rate of change of IRI < 0.02 m/km/yr
• Figure 28. Roughness progression of doweled sections, rate of change of IRI between 0.02 and 0.04 m/km/yr
• Figure 29. Roughness progression of doweled sections, rate of change of IRI > 0.04 m/km/yr
• Figure 30. Relationship between IRI and faulting for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 31. Relationship between IRI and faulting for doweled pavements
• Figure 32. Theoretically generated slab profiles
• Figure 33. Relationship between curvature and IRI from theoretical analysis
• Figure 34. Distribution of CI at last profile date for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 35. Distribution of CI for nondoweled data set 1
• Figure 36. Distribution of CI for nondoweled data set 2
• Figure 37. Distribution of CI for nondoweled data set 3
• Figure 38. Change in IRI and CI at last profile date for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 39. Distribution of CI at last profile date for doweled pavements
• Figure 40. Distribution of CI for doweled data set 1
• Figure 41. Distribution of CI for doweled data set 2
• Figure 42. Distribution of CI for doweled data set 3
• Figure 43. Change in IRI and CI at last profile date for doweled pavements
• Figure 44. Distribution of PCC slab thickness for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 45. Distribution of PCC slab thickness for doweled pavements
• Figure 46. Distribution of joint spacing for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 47. Distribution of joint spacing for doweled pavements
• Figure 48. Slab thickness versus cumulative traffic for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 49. Slab thickness versus cumulative traffic for doweled pavements
• Figure 50. Distribution of annual precipitation for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 51. Distribution of annual precipitation for doweled pavements
• Figure 52. Distribution of mean annual temperature for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 53. Distribution of mean annual temperature for doweled pavements
• Figure 54. Distribution of freezing index for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 55. Distribution of freezing index for doweled pavements
• Figure 56. Distribution of PCC split tensile strength for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 57. Distribution of PCC split tensile strength for doweled pavements
• Figure 58. Distribution of PCC elastic modulus for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 59. Distribution of PCC elastic modulus for doweled pavements
• Figure 60. Distribution of ratio between PCC elastic modulus and split tensile strength for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 61. Distribution of the ratio between PCC elastic modulus and split tensile strength for doweled pavements
• Figure 62. Distribution of compressive strength for nondoweled pavements
• Figure 63. Distribution of compressive strength for doweled pavements
• Figure 64. Distribution of coarse-to-fine aggregate ratio for doweled pavements
• Figure 65. Profile data from 1990 and 2002-section 203060
• Figure 66. Profile data from 1990 and 2001-section 313018
• Figure 67. Profile data from 1990 and 2001-section 383005
• Figure 68. Profile data from 1989 and 2001-section 493001
• Figure 69. Profile data from 1989 and 2001-section 163017
• Figure 70. Profile data from 1990 and 2001-section 273003
• Figure 71. IRI values for different test sequences-S.R. 6220
• Figure 72. RN values for different test sequences-S.R. 6220
• Figure 73. IRI values for repeat runs-S.R. 6220
• Figure 74. Measurements at a joint, initial sawcut, 1-day-S.R. 6220
• Figure 75. Measurements at a joint, reservoir widened, 1-month morning-S.R. 6220
• Figure 76. Measurements at a joint, joint sealed, 1-month afternoon-S.R. 6220
• Figure 77. Roughness profiles for outside lane, left wheel path-S.R. 6220
• Figure 78. Roughness profiles for outside lane, right wheel path-S.R. 6220
• Figure 79. Roughness profiles for outside lane, left and right wheel path-S.R. 6220
• Figure 80. Roughness profiles for inside lane, left wheel path-S.R. 6220
• Figure 81. Roughness profiles for inside lane, right wheel path-S.R. 6220
• Figure 82. Roughness profiles for inside lane, left and right wheel path-S.R. 6220
• Figure 83. Paver in operation
• Figure 84. IRI values for different test sequences-U.S. 20
• Figure 85. RN values for different test sequences to U.S. 20
• Figure 86. IRI values for repeat runs-U.S. 20
• Figure 87. Measurements at a joint, unsealed-U.S. 20
• Figure 88. Measurements at a joint, sealed-U.S. 20
• Figure 89. Roughness profiles for U.S. 20, left wheel path
• Figure 90. Roughness profiles for U.S. 20, right wheel path
• Figure 91. Roughness profiles for U.S. 20, left and right wheel path
• Figure 92. Band-pass filtered elevation profile
• Figure 93. PSD plots of profiles
• Figure 94. Overall view of the paving train
• Figure 95. Slipform paver used for paving
• Figure 96. IRI values for different test sequences for entire test section-I-80
• Figure 97. RN values for different test sequences for entire test section-I-80
• Figure 98. IRI values from repeat runs-I-80
• Figure 99. Roughness profiles for I-80, left wheel path
• Figure 100. Roughness profiles for I-80, right wheel path
• Figure 101. Roughness profiles for I-80, left and right wheel path
• Figure 102. Tie bars and dowel basket placed on base
• Figure 103. View of the paving train
• Figure 104. Profile data collection using a lightweight inertial profiler
• Figure 105. High-speed inertial profiler
• Figure 106. IRI values for different test sequences-U.S. 23
• Figure 107. RN values for different test sequences-U.S. 23
• Figure 108. Repeatability of IRI values-U.S. 23
• Figure 109. Measurement at a joint, initial sawcut-U.S. 23
• Figure 110. Measurement at a joint, joint reservoir widened-U.S. 23
• Figure 111. Measurement at a joint, joint sealed-U.S. 23
• Figure 112. Data collected over a joint by the high-speed profiler
• Figure 113. Roughness profiles for inside lane, left wheel path-U.S. 23
• Figure 114. Roughness profiles for inside lane, right wheel path-U.S. 23
• Figure 115. Roughness profiles for inside lane, left and right wheel path-U.S. 23
• Figure 116. Roughness profiles for outside lane, left wheel path-U.S. 23
• Figure 117. Roughness profiles for outside lane, right wheel path-U.S. 23
• Figure 118. Roughness profiles for outside lane, left and right wheel path-U.S. 23
• Figure 119. Humps in profile for 1-day profile data
• Figure 120. Residue from joint sawing operation adjacent to a joint
• Figure 121. View from the front of the paver
• Figure 122. Finishing process behind the paver
• Figure 123. IRI values for different test sequences-I-69
• Figure 124. RN values for different test sequences-I-69
• Figure 125. Repeatability of IRI values-I-69
• Figure 126. Roughness profiles for I-69, left wheel path
• Figure 127. Roughness profiles for I-69, right wheel path
• Figure 128. Roughness profiles for I-69, left and right wheel path
• Figure 129. Equation. Kappa
• Figure 130. Equation. Curvature
• Figure 131. Equation. M_x
• Figure 132. Equation. Sigma
• Figure 133. Equation. Negative second derivative of z over x
• Figure 134. Equation. Negative second derivative of z over y
• Figure 135. Equation. K_total
• Figure 136. Equation. First derivative of z over x
• Figure 137. Equation. Second derivative of z over x

LIST OF TABLES

• Table 1. Distribution of GPS-3 sections
• Table 2. Distribution of nondoweled GPS-3 sections
• Table 3. Average IRI of nondoweled sections at first and last profile dates
• Table 4. Distribution of doweled GPS-3 sections
• Table 5. Average IRI of doweled sections at first and last profile dates
• Table 6. Comparison between doweled and nondoweled sections
• Table 7. Distribution of CI at last profile date for nondoweled sections
• Table 8. Factors with highest correlation to CI for nondoweled pavements
• Table 9. Distribution of CI at last profile date for doweled pavements
• Table 10. Factors with highest correlation to negative CI for doweled pavements
• Table 11. Parameters considered for analysis
• Table 12. Parameters with highest correlation to change in roughness for nondoweled pavements
• Table 13. Base types for nondoweled pavements
• Table 14. Base types for doweled pavements
• Table 15. Shoulder types for nondoweled pavements
• Table 16. Shoulder types for doweled pavements
• Table 17. Cumulative traffic distribution for nondoweled pavements
• Table 18. Cumulative traffic distribution for doweled pavements
• Table 19. Nondoweled data set 3 sections
• Table 20. Doweled data set 3 sections
• Table 21. Pavement details-S.R. 6220
• Table 22. Joint details-S.R. 6220
• Table 23. Mix proportions-S.R. 6220
• Table 24. Gradation of aggregates-S.R. 6220
• Table 25. Paving Information-S.R. 6220
• Table 26. Profile data collection-S.R. 6220
• Table 27. IRI values for different test sequences-S.R. 6220
• Table 28. Percentage change in IRI with respect to 1-day IRI-S.R. 6220
• Table 29. RN values for different test sequences-S.R. 6220
• Table 30. Percentage change in RN with respect to 1-day RN-S.R. 6220
• Table 31. CI values-S.R. 6220
• Table 32. Pavement details-U.S. 20
• Table 33. Joint details-U.S. 20
• Table 34. Mix proportions-U.S. 20
• Table 35. Gradation of aggregates-U.S. 20
• Table 36. Paving information-U.S. 20
• Table 37. Profile data collection-U.S. 20
• Table 38. IRI values for different test sequences-U.S. 20
• Table 39. Percentage change in IRI with respect to 1-day IRI-U.S. 20
• Table 40. RN values for different test sequences-U.S. 20
• Table 41. Percentage change in RN with respect to 1-day RN-U.S. 20
• Table 42. CI values-U.S. 20
• Table 43. Pavement details-I-80
• Table 44. Mix proportions-I-80
• Table 45. Gradation of aggregates-I-80
• Table 46. Paving information-I-80
• Table 47. Profile data collection-I-80
• Table 48. IRI values for different test sequences-I-80
• Table 49. Percentage change in IRI with respect to 2-day IRI-I-80
• Table 50. RN values for different test sequences-I-80
• Table 51. Percentage change in RN with respect to 2-day RN-I-80
• Table 52. CI values-I-80
• Table 53. Pavement details-U.S. 23
• Table 54. Joint details-U.S. 23
• Table 55. Mix proportions-U.S. 23
• Table 56. Gradation of aggregates-U.S. 23
• Table 57. Paving information-U.S. 23
• Table 58. Profile data collection-U.S. 23
• Table 59. IRI values for different test sequences-U.S. 23
• Table 60. Percentage change in IRI with respect to 1-day IRI-U.S. 23
• Table 61. RN values for different test sequences
• Table 62. Percentage change in RN with respect to 1-day RN-U.S. 23
• Table 63. CI values-U.S. 23
• Table 64. Pavement details-I-69
• Table 65. Mix proportions-I-69
• Table 66. Aggregate gradation-I-69
• Table 67. Paving information
• Table 68. Profile data collection-I-69
• Table 69. IRI values for different test sequences-I-69
• Table 70. Percentage change in IRI with respect to 1-day IRI-I-69
• Table 71. RN values for different test sequences
• Table 72. Percentage change in RN with respect to 1-day RN-I-69
• Table 73. CI values-I-69
• Table 74. Nondoweled GPS sections
• Table 75. Doweled GPS sections
• Table 76. Faulting at nondoweled sections
• Table 77. Faulting at doweled sections
• Table 78. CI at nondoweled sections
• Table 79. CI at doweled sections

ACRONYMS