TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. ASSESSING DRIVER ACCEPTANCE: PROBLEM DEFINITION
A Case History
APPROACHES TO STUDYING DRIVER ACCEPTANCE
A Structural Model of Innovation Acceptance
Empirical Approaches to Analyzing Acceptance
Potential Measurement Techniques
Subjects
Apparatus
Materials
Procedure
Subjects
Apparatus
Materials
Procedure
Phase 1. TravTek System User Test Questions - Descriptive Statistics
Phase 2. Age, Gender, Video, and Mean Percent Correct Scores on the TravTek System User Test
Phase 3. Identifying Relationships Among Variables
Composite Variable Evaluations
Phase 1. CityGuide System User Test Questions - Descriptive Statistics
Phase 2. Age, Gender, Driver Type, and Mean Percent Correct Scores on the CityGuide System User Test
TravTek System Feature Pattern Desirability, Driver Attitudes, and System Understanding
Driver Characteristics and Feature Pattern Desirability for the TravTek System
Influence of Demonstration Fidelity for the TravTek System
CityGuide System Feature Desirability, Driver Attitudes, and System Understanding
Driver Characteristics and Feature Pattern Desirability for the CityGuide System
Influence of Demonstration Fidelity of the CityGuide System
Broader Implications of Experiments 1 and 1B
User Acceptance
Evaluation Methodology
3. EXPERIMENT 2
Subjects
Apparatus
Battelle Route Guidance Simulator
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Experimental Procedure
Information Cost
Penalty Costs
Convergence
Trust in the Route Guidance System (Inter-Link)
Self-Confidence in Ability to Accurately Anticipate Traffic Conditions (Inter-Link)
Traffic Expectations (Inter-Link)
Trust Minus Self-Confidence
Objective Measures of Driver Behavior
Subjective Measures of Driver Behavior
Effects of Aging
Conclusions
4. EXPERIMENT 3
Participants
Materials and Procedures
Magnitude Estimation Data
Option Package Magnitude Estimation Data
Paired Comparison Preference Data
Network Analysis
5. CONCLUSIONS
USE OF MODELS
ATIS AND CVO GUIDELINES
Designing ATIS Equipment
Education
Incentives to Promote ITS Acceptance and Use in CVO
FUTURE RESEARCH
APPENDIX A: A SUMMARY OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
REASONS FOR RESISTING NEW TECHNOLOGY
Product Characteristic Definitions
Consumer Characteristic Definitions
TECHNIQUES FOR RESISTING ATIS/CVO TECHNOLOGY
ESTIMATE OF THE PERCENTAGE OF DRIVERS LIKELY TO ADOPT ATIS/CVO
Caveats for Interpreting Figure 82
Sources of Data
ESTIMATE OF THE PERCENTAGE OF DRIVERS LIKELY TO FOLLOW ATIS/CVO RECOMMENDATIONS
CONDITIONS THAT MAY AFFECT ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION OF ATIS/CVO ADVICE
POTENTIAL TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTING THE ACCEPTANCE AND USE OF ATIS/CVO
RELATIONSHIP OF ATTITUDES TO BEHAVIOR: THEORY AND RESEARCH
History of Attitude/Behavior Research
Fishbein and Ajzen's Theory of Reasoned Action
Problems in this Area of Research
Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior
Fazio's Attitude Accessibility Theory
Summary
APPENDIX B: EXPERIMENT 1 AND 1B MATERIALS
DRIVER DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
TRAVTEK SYSTEM FEATURE DESIRABILITY
TRAVTEK DEMONSTRATION FIDELITY
TRAVTEK: MODIFYING YOUR TRIP TO AVOID TRAFFIC
TRAVTEK: TRUST & SELF-CONFIDENCE
TRAVTEK USER ACCEPTANCE ISSUES
CITYGUIDE SYSTEM FEATURE DESIRABILITY
CITYGUIDE DEMONSTRATION FIDELITY
CITYGUIDE: TRUST & SELF-CONFIDENCE
CITYGUIDE USER ACCEPTANCE ISSUES
CITYGUIDE PERCEIVED USEFULNESS
APPENDIX C: EXPERIMENT 1 AND 1B RESULTS
APPENDIX D: EXPERIMENT 2 MATERIALS
SUBJECT'S FAMILIARITY WITH DRIVING IN SEATTLE: PRE-SELECTION PHONE QUESTIONNAIRE
DRIVER DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS QUESTIONNAIRE (PHONE)
DRIVER DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
EXPERIMENT 2: TRUST & SELF-CONFIDENCE IN ATIS TECHNOLOGY
EXPERIMENT 2: INTER-LINK QUESTIONS
EXPERIMENT 2: MODIFYING YOUR TRIP TO AVOID TRAFFIC
APPENDIX E: EXPERIMENT 2 RESULTS
APPENDIX F: EXPERIMENT 3 MATERIALS
ADVANCED TRAVELER INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLE OPERATIONS
COMMERCIAL VEHICLE FEATURE DESCRIPTIONS
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FEATURE EVALUATION -- PART 1
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FEATURE EVALUATION -- PART
FEATURE COMBINATIONS AND OPTION PACKAGES
LIST OF FIGURES
1. A structural model of the components of innovation acceptance adapted from Mackie & Wylie (1988).
2. Age and gender distribution for subjects participating in experiment 1.
4. Map of Harry P. Leu Botanical Gardens to Church Street Station route.
5. Examples of TravTek system information presentation formats.
6. Example of CityGuide system text instructions.
7. Example of CityGuide system hotel.
9. Composite variable feature pattern relationships.
10. The TravTek system's guidance display was easy to learn. (TRAV1A)
11. The TravTek system's guidance display was easy to use. (TRAV1B)
12. The TravTek system's guidance display was useful. (TRAV1C)
13. The TravTek system's route map was easy to learn. (TRAV2A)
14. The TravTek system's route map was easy to use. (TRAV2B)
15. The TravTek system's route map was useful. (TRAV2C)
16. The TravTek system's voice guide feature was easy to learn. (TRAV3A)
17. The TravTek system's voice guide feature was easy to use. (TRAV3B)
18. The TravTek system's voice guide feature was useful. (TRAV3C)
19. Of
the two routing displays, route map, and guidance display, which
did you prefer? (TRAV4)
20. Overall, the TravTek system was easy to learn. (TRAV5A)
21. Overall, the TravTek system was easy to use. (TRAV5B)
22. Overall, the TravTek system was useful. (TRAV5C)
23. Do you think the TravTek system would be useful for at-home daily driving? (TRAV6A)
24. Do you think the TravTek system would be useful for out-of-town vacation driving? (TRAV6B)
25. Do you think the TravTek system would be useful for out-of-town business trips? (TRAV6C)
26. How much would you be willing to pay for a TravTek system? (TRAV7)
27. Rank...energy conservation. (TRAV8A)
28. Rank...environmental quality. (TRAV8B)
29. Rank...highway/traffic safety. (TRAV8C)
30. Rank...relief of highway congestion. (TRAV8D)
31. Mean percent correct scores for all system capabilities.
32. Basic map feature pattern desirability.
33. Voice feature pattern desirability.
34. Text/Icon feature pattern desirability.
35. Coordination of travel information feature pattern desirability.
36. Map simplification pattern desirability.
37. Monitoring & emergency response feature pattern desirability.
38. Indirect relationships of feature patterns.
39. Relationships among composite variables.
40. CityGuide system's map display was easy to learn. (CGTEST1A)
41. CityGuide system's map display was easy to use. (CGTEST1B)
42. CityGuide system's map display was useful. (CGTEST1C)
43. CityGuide system's text instructions were easy to learn. (CGTEST2A)
44. CityGuide system's text instructions were easy to use. (CGTEST2B)
45. CityGuide system's text instructions were useful. (CGTEST2C)
46. Of the two routing options, map display, and text instructions, which do you prefer? (CGTEST3)
47. Overall, CityGuide system was easy to learn. (CGTEST4A)
48. Overall, CityGuide system was easy to use. (CGTEST4B)
49. Overall, CityGuide system was useful. (CGTEST4C)
50. Mean percent correct scores for CityGuide system's capabilities.
51. Recreational information feature pattern desirability.
52. Routing assistance feature pattern desirability.
53. Accommodation related information feature pattern desirability.
54. Restaurant and other coordinations feature pattern desirability.
55. Indirect relationships of feature patterns.
56. Relationships among composite variables for TravTek system.
57. Relationships among composite variables for CityGuide system.
58. Artist reconstruction of real-time digitized color display.
59. Monitor displaying a computer-generated schematic map.
60. Link tree diagram (actual links used).
61. Mean purchased information costs as a function of repetition.
62. Information cost as a function of age and accuracy.
63. Mean penalty costs as a function of age and accuracy.
64. Mean penalty costs as a function of accuracy and repetition.
65. Percentage agreement with baseline route as a function of age and accuracy.
66. Number of cases of route convergence or non-convergence with pre-trial baseline across all trials.
67. Mean rated trust as a function of information accuracy and repetition.
68. Mean rated trust as a function of information accuracy and link position.
69. Mean rated trust as a function of link position.
70. Mean rated trust as a function of age and purchased link information.
71. Mean rated trust as a function of age given the type of information purchased for the 77% accurate trials.
72. Mean rated self-confidence as a function of age and purchased link information.
73. Mean self-confidence ratings as a function of age given the type of information purchased for the 77% accurate trials.
74. Mean rated traffic expectations as a function of accurate information availability and the purchasing of that information.
75. Mean
rated traffic expectations as a function of age and purchased link
information.
76. Mean rated traffic expectations as a function of age given the type of information purchased for the 77% accurate trials.
77. Mean rated trust (-) self-confidence as a function of age and purchased link information.
78. Mean rated trust (-) self-confidence as a function of age given the type of information purchased for the 77% accurate trials.
79. A link-weighted network of ATIS/CVO functions generated for local drivers.
80. A link-weighted network of ATIS/CVO functions generated for long-haul drivers.
81. Driver acceptance of ITS technology.
82. Diffusion curves for four consumer products.
83. Mean rated trust for five links traversed.
84. Mean rated trust for six links traversed.
85. Mean rated trust for seven links traversed.
86. Mean rated trust for eight links traversed.
87. Mean rated trust, two middle links averaged.
88. Mean rated trust, three middle links averaged.
89. Mean rated trust, four middle links averaged.
90. Mean rated trust comparing accuracy of purchased information for links traversed.
91. Mean rated self-confidence for five links traversed.
92. Mean rated self-confidence for six links traversed.
93. Mean rated self-confidence for seven links traversed.
94. Mean rated self-confidence for eight links traversed.
95. Mean rated traffic expectations across links with accurate or inaccurate information (Sequence 1).
96. Mean rated traffic expectations across links with accurate or inaccurate information (Sequence 2).
97. Mean
rated traffic expectations across links with accurate or inaccurate information
(Sequence 3).
LIST OF TABLES
1. Definition of terms for figure 1.
2. Independent variables in experiment 1.
3. Dependent variables in experiment 1.
4. Time table for experiment 1.
5. Independent variables in experiment 1B.
6. Dependent variables in experiment 1B.
7. TravTek system user test questions.
8. TravTek system most desired features.
9. TravTek system least desired features.
10. Method for determination of feature patterns.
12. Cross-correlations between unfamiliar-city and familiar-city factor scores of the feature patterns.
13. Method for determination of composite variables.
14. Composite variable correlations.
15. Basic map feature pattern initial analysis summary.
16. Basic map feature pattern final analysis summary.
17. Voice feature pattern initial analysis summary.
18. Voice feature pattern final analysis summary.
19. Text/Icon feature pattern initial analysis summary.
20. Text/Icon feature pattern final analysis summary.
21. Gender and age interaction on desirability.
22. Coordination of travel information feature pattern initial analysis summary.
23. Coordination of travel information feature pattern final analysis summary.
24. Map simplification feature pattern initial analysis summary.
25. Map simplification feature pattern final analysis summary.
26. Monitoring & emergency response feature pattern initial analysis summary.
27. Monitoring & emergency response feature pattern final analysis summary.
28. CityGuide system user test questions.
29. CityGuide system most desired features.
30. CityGuide system least desired features.
31. Method for determination of feature patterns.
33. Cross-correlations between unfamiliar-city and familiar-city factor scores of the feature patterns.
34. Method for determination of composite variables.
35. Composite variable correlations.
36. Recreational information feature pattern initial analysis summary.
37. Recreational information feature pattern final analysis summary.
38. Routing assistance feature pattern initial analysis summary.
39. Routing assistance feature pattern final analysis summary.
40. Accommodation related information feature pattern initial analysis summary.
41. Accommodation related information feature pattern final analysis summary.
42. Restaurant and other coordinations feature pattern initial analysis summary.
43. Restaurant and other coordinations feature pattern final analysis summary.
44. Summary of the TravTek system multiple-correlation results.
45. Age differences in the TravTek system feature acceptance.
46. Text/Icon feature pattern AGEXGEN subset of the final analysis summary.
47. Summary of the CityGuide system multiple-correlation results.
48. Age differences in the CityGuide system feature acceptance.
49. Age group and number of subjects for experiment 2.
50. Link segments for experiment 2.
51. Summary of the independent variables.
52. List of dependent variables for experiment 2.
53. Sequence of questionnaires administered.
54. Analysis of trials: Cell entries are trial ordinal position.
55. Multiple t-tests for information accuracy: Middle links versus other links.
56. Demographic data for local and long-haul drivers.
57. Magnitude estimation task mean z-scores by driver group and function.
58. Mean ratings of option packages.
59. Paired comparison task mean z-scores by driver group and function.
60. Factors affecting resistance to ATIS/CVO technology.
61. Possible techniques to resist ATIS/CVO technology.
62. Information developed from bibliography and small-group discussion.
63. Information generated from small-group discussion.
64. Analysis of variance for TRAV1A: Guidance easy to learn.
65. Analysis of variance for TRAV1B: Guidance easy to use.
66. Analysis of variance for TRAV1C: Guidance useful.
67. Analysis of variance for TRAV2A: Route map easy to learn.
68. Analysis of variance for TRAV2B: Map route easy to use.
69. Analysis of variance for TRAV2C: Route map useful.
70. Analysis of variance for TRAV3A: Voice easy to learn.
71. Analysis of variance for TRAV3B: Voice easy to use.
72. Analysis of variance for TRAV3C: Voice useful.
73. Analysis of variance for TRAV4: Routing preference.
74. Analysis of variance for TRAV5A: TravTek easy to learn.
75. Analysis of variance for TRAV5B: TravTek easy to use.
76. Analysis of variance for TRAV5C: TravTek useful.
77. Analysis of variance for TRAV6A: At home daily driving.
78. Analysis of variance for TRAV6B: Out-of-town vacation driving.
79. Analysis of variance for TRAV6C: Out-of-town business trips.
80. Analysis of variance for TRAV7: Willing to pay for TravTek.
81. Analysis of variance for TRAV8A: Energy conservation.
82. Analysis of variance for TRAV8B: Environmental quality.
83. Analysis of variance for TRAV8C: Highway/traffic safety.
84. Analysis of variance for TRAV8D: Relief of highway congestion.
85. Analysis of variance for overall TravTek system capabilities.
86. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 1A.
87. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 1B.
88. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 1C.
89. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 2A.
90. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 2B.
91. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 2C.
92. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST3.
93. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 4A.
94. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 4B.
95. Analysis of covariance for CGTEST 4C.
96. Analysis
of covariance for overall CityGuide system capabilities.
97. Analysis of variance for information cost.
98. Analysis of variance for penalty cost.
99. Analysis of variance for convergence.
100. Analysis of variance for trust in the route guidance system.
101. Analysis of variance for trust in the route guidance system: Purchased link information.
102. Analysis of variance for trust in the route guidance system: Information type.
103. Analysis of variance for self-confidence: Purchased link information.
104. Analysis of variance for self-confidence: Information type.
105. Analysis of variance for traffic expectations: Purchased link information.
106. Analysis of variance for traffic expectations: Information type.
107. Analysis of variance for trust minus self-confidence: Purchased link information.
108. Analysis
of variance for trust minus self-confidence: Information type.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AAA American Automobile Association
AARP American Association of Retired Persons
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
ATA American Trucking Association
ATIS Advanced Traveler Information Systems
ATM Automated Teller Machine
CB Citizen band
COTR Contracting Officer's Technical Representative
CTA California Trucking Association
CVO Commercial Vehicle Operations
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
h hour
IMSIS In-Vehicle Motorist Services Information Systems
IRANS In-Vehicle Routing and Navigation Systems
ITS Intelligent Transportation Systems
LCD Liquid crystal display
MANOVA Multivariate Analysis of Variance
MIAT Modified Innovation Acceptance Theory
min minute
MRA Multiple Regression Analysis
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
PC Personal Computer
PFA Principal Factor Analysis
RGS Route Guidance Simulator
RPM Revolutions per minute
SAS Statistical Analysis Software
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science
TAM Technology Acceptance Model
TLX Task Loading Index
TRB Transportation Research Board
TV Television set
U. S. United States
VCR Videocassette recorder