Chapter 4. DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION
The literature that was reviewed clearly indicates that the
high-performance reinforcement types identified outperform black
bar from a corrosion-resistance perspective in bridge structure
service. A complicating aspect of high-performance reinforcement,
unlike the case of black bar, is that numerous types with a broad
range properties are available. Because enhanced corrosion
performance depends primarily on the concentration of relatively
costly alloying elements such as Cr and Mo and to a lesser extent
upon surface treatment, the better performers are the most
expensive. The most logical approach is to select the alternative
that will perform satisfactorily for the design life at the lowest
life cycle cost. However, accomplishing this requires knowing the
long-term performance of candidate reinforcement types; in other
words, being able to anticipate the design life of the bridge in
question, which can be 75-100 years. Presently, such information
can only be obtained from accelerated, short-term tests, but there
is no reliable correlation between these results and long-term
performance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Virmani, Y.P, Jones, W.R., and
Jones, D.H., Public Roads, Vol. 84(3), 1984, p. 96.
- Koch, G.H., Brongers, P.H.,
Thompson, N.G., Virmani, Y.P, and Payer, J.H., Corrosion Costs
and Prevention Strategies in the United States, Report No.
FHWA-RD-01-156, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC,
March 2002.
- Yunovich, M, Thompson, N.G., and
Virmani, Y.P., "Life Cycle Cost Analysis for Reinforced Concrete
Bridge Decks," Paper No. 03309 presented at CORROSION/03, San
Diego, CA, March 10-14, 2003.
- Hausmann, D.A., Materials
Protection, Vol. 6(10), 1967, p. 19.
- Li, L. and Sagüés, A.A.,
Corrosion, Vol. 57, 2001, p. 19.
- Sandberg, P. and Larsson, J.,
"Chloride Binding in Cement Pastes in Equilibrium with Synthetic
Pore Solutions," in Chloride Penetration in Concrete
Structures," Nordic Miniseminar, Göteborg, January 1993, Ed.
L.-O. Nilsson (Chalmers Tekniska Hogskola, Göteborg), 1993, p.
98.
- Tritthart, J., Cement and
Concrete Research, Vol. 19, 1989, p. 683.
- Glass, G.K. and Buenfeld, N.R.,
"Chloride Threshold Levels for Corrosion-induced Deterioration of
Steel in Concrete," Paper No. 3 presented at RILEM International
Workshop on Chloride Penetration into Concrete, Saint
Rémy-les-Chevreuse, France, October 15-18, 1995.
- Bentur, A., Diamond, S, and Berke,
N.S., Steel Corrosion in Concrete, E&FN Spon, London,
UK, 1997, pp. 15-16.
- Code of Federal Regulations,
Section 650.305, "Frequency of Inspections," U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC, April 1, 2002 revision.
- Tutti, K., Corrosion of
Steel in Concrete, Report No. 4, Swedish Cement and Concrete
Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 1982.
- Virmani, Y.P. and Clemena, G.G.,
Corrosion Protection: Concrete Bridges, Report No.
FHWA-RD-98-088, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC,
September 1998.
- Powers, R.G. and Kessler, R.,
Corrosion Evaluation of Substructure, Long Key Bridge,
Corrosion Report No. 87-9A, Florida Department of Transportation,
Gainesville, FL, 1987.
- Powers, R.G., Corrosion of
Epoxy-Coated Rebar, Keys Segmental Bridges Monroe County,
Report No. 88-8A, Florida Department of Transportation,
Gainesville, FL, August, 1988.
- Zayed, A.M. and Sagues, A.A.,
"Corrosion of Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete," Paper
No. 386 presented at CORROSION/89, New Orleans, LA, April 21,
1989.
- Gustafson, D.P., "Epoxy Update,"
Civil Engineering, Vol. 58, No. 10, 1988, pp. 38-41.
- Houston, J.T., Atimay, E., and
Ferguson, P.M., Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel Embedded in
Structural Concrete, Report No. CFHR-3-5-68-112-1F, Center for
Highway Research, University of Texas, Austin, TX, 1972.
- Ryell, J. and Richardson, B.S.,
Cracks in Concrete Bridge Decks and Their Contribution to
Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel and Prestressed Cables, Report
No. IR51, Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Commission,
Ontario, Canada, 1972.
- Bamforth, P.B., "Definition of
Exposure Classes and Concrete Mix Requirements for Chloride
Contaminated Environments," Corrosion of Reinforcement in
Concrete, Eds: Page, C.L., Treadaway, K.W.J., and Bamforth,
P.B., Society of Chemical Industry, London, UK, 1996, p. 176.
- Howell, K.M. and Tinnea, J.S.,
"Corrosion Investigation and Mitigation of Reinforcing Steel
Viaducts," Paper No. 00797 presented at CORROSION/00, Orlando, FL,
March 26-31, 2000.
- Bamforth, P.B. and Price, W.F.,
"Factors Influencing Chloride Ingress into Marine Structures,"
Concrete 2000, Eds: Dhir, R.K. and Jones, M.R., E&FN
Spon, London, UK, 1993, p. 1105.
- Standard Recommended Practice
RP0290-2000, "Impressed Current Cathodic Protection of Reinforcing
Steel in Atmospherically Exposed Concrete Structures," NACE
International, Houston, TX, 2000.
- Miller, J.B., "Structural
Aspects of High Powered Electrochemical Treatment of Reinforced
Concrete," in Corrosion and Corrosion Protection of Steel in
Concrete," Ed. R.N. Swamy, Elsevier Applied Science, London,
UK, 1994, p. 29.
- State-of-the-Art Report 01101,
"Electrochemical Chloride Extraction from Steel Reinforced
Concrete," NACE International, Houston, TX, 2001.
- Andrade, C. and Macias, A.,
"Galvanized Reinforcement in Concrete," in Surface
Coatings-2, Ed. A.D. Wilson, .W. Nicholson, and H.J. Posser,
Elsevier Applied Science, London, UK, p. 137.
- Andrade, C., Holst, J.D.,
Nurenberger, U., Whiteley, J.D., and Woodman, N., Protection
Systems for Reinforcement, CEB Information Bulletin No. 211,
Switzerland, 1992.
- Bower, J.E., Friedersdorf, L.E.,
Heuhart, B.H., Marder, A.R., and Juda, A.I., Application of
Stainless Steel and Stainless-Clad Reinforcing Bars in Highway
Construction, Report No. HWA-PA-2000-011+96-31(04),
Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, University Park, PA,
November 27, 2000.
- Wheat, H.G. and Deshpande, P.G.,
"Alternative Reinforcement Materials for Concrete-A State of the
Art Review," Paper No. 01652 presented at CORROSION/01, Houston,
TX, March 11-16, 2001.
- McDonald, J.B., Pfiefer, D.F.,
and Blake, G.T., The Corrosion Performance of Inorganic-,
Ceramic-, and Metallic-Clad Reinforcing Bars and Solid Metallic
Reinforcing Bars in Accelerated Screening Tests, Report No.
FHWA-RD-96-085, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC,
October 1996.
- Stainless Steel in
Concrete-State of the Art Report, European Federation of
Corrosion Publication No. 18, Ed. U. Nürnberger, Institute of
Materials, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1996.
- A615/A615M "Specification for
Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement,"
Annual Book of Standards, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 2004.
- Wilde, B.E., "A Critical
Appraisal of Some Popular Laboratory Electrochemical Tests for
Prediction the Localized Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steel in
Sea Water," Corrosion, Vol. 28, 1972, p. 283.
- Galvele, J.R., "Transport
Processes and the Mechanism of Pitting of Metals," Journal of
the Electrochemical Society, Vol. 123, April 1976,
p.464-474.
- Galvele, J.R., "Transport
Processes in Passivation Breakdown-II. Full Hydrolysis of the Metal
Ions," Corrosion Science, Vol. 21(8), 1981,
p.551-579.
- Muller, I.L. and J.R. Gavele,
"Pitting Potential of High Purity Aluminum Alloys-II. Al-Mg and
Al-Zn Alloys," Corrosion Science, Vol. 17, 1977, p.
995-1007.
- Hurley, M.F. and Scully, J.R.,
"Chloride Threshold Levels in Clad 316L and Solid 316LN Stainless
Steel Rebar," Paper No. 02224 presented at CORROSION/02, Denver,
CO, 2002.
- Bertonini, L., Bolzoni, T.,
Pastore, P., and Pedeferri, P., "Behavior of Stainless Steel in
Simulated Concrete pore Solution," British Corrosion
Journal, Vol. 31, 1996, p. 218.
- Sorensen, B., Jensen, P.B., and
Maahn, E., "The Corrosion Properties of Stainless Steel
Reinforcement," in Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete,
Ed. C.L. Page et al., Elsevier, London, UK, 1990, pp.
601-605.
- Nurnberger, U., Beul, W., and
Onuseit, G., "Corrosion Behavior of Welded Stainless Reinforced
Steel in Concrete," Otto-Graf-Journal, Vol. 4, 1993, p.
225.
- Treadaway, K.W.J., "Corrosion of
Steel Reinforcement in Concrete Construction," Materials
Preservation Group, Society of Chemical Industry, London, UK,
1978.
- Treadaway, K.W.J., Cox, R.N.,
and Brown, B.L., "Proceedings," Institution of Civil
Engineers, Part 1, Vol. 86, 1989, p. 305.
- Callaghan, B.G. and Hearn, I.R.,
"The Use of 3Cr12 as Reinforcing in Concrete," paper presented to
the South African Corrosion Institute, Cape Town, South Africa,
April 1989.
- McDonald, J.B., Pfiefer, D.F.,
and Sherman, M.R., Corrosion Evaluation of Epoxy-Coated,
Metallic-Clad, and Solid Metallic Reinforcing Bars in
Concrete, Report No. FHWA-RD-98-153, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, December 1998.
- Hope, B.B., Some Corrosion
Aspects of Stainless Steel Reinforcement in Concrete Bridges,
Report No. MI-181, Ontario Ministry of Transportation, November 24,
2000.
- Clemeña, G.G and Virmani, Y.P.,
"Comparison of the Corrosion Resistance of Selected Metallic
Reinforcing Bars for Extension of Service Life of Future Concrete
Bridges in Outdoor Concrete Blocks," Paper No. 03298 presented at
CORROSION/03, San Diego, CA, March 16-20, 2003.
- Rasheeduzzafar, Dakhil, F.H.,
Bader, M.A., and Khan, M.M., "Performance of Corrosion Resisting
Steels in Chloride-Bearing Concrete," ACI Materials
Journal, September-October, 1992, p. 439.
- Flint, G.N. and Cox, R.N., "The
Resistance of Stainless Steel Partly Embedded in Concrete to
Corrosion by Seawater," Magazine of Concrete Research,
Vol. 40, 1988, p. 13.
- Miller, R.L., Hartt, W.H., and
Brown, R.P., "Stary Current and Galvanic Corrosion of Reinforcing
Steel in Concrete," Materials Performance, Vol. 15(5),
1976, p. 20.
- Darwin, D., Browning, J., Balma,
J., Ji, J., Gong, L., Nguyen, T.V., and Locke, C.E., "Corrosion
Resistant Reinforcing Steel," paper presented at the Concrete
Bridge Conference, Chicago, IL, Oct. 9, 2002,.
- Pfeifer, D.W. and Scali, M.J.,
"Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge Substructures,"
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, December 1981.
- Jenkins, J.F., Validation of
Nitronic 33 in Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete, Report No.
TN-1764, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, CA, July
1986.
- Darwin, D., Browning, J.,
Nguyen, T.V., and Locke, C.E., Mechanical and Corrosion
Properties of a High Strength, High Chromium Reinforcing Steel for
Concrete, Report No. SD2001-05-F, South Dakota Department of
Transportation, Pierre, SD, March 2002.
- Lopez, J., New Jersey Department
of Transportation, unpublished research.
- Ansley, M.H., Investigation
into the Structural Performance of MMFX Reinforcing, Florida
Department of Transportation Structures Laboratory, Tallahassee,
FL, September 2002.
- Cui, F. and Sagüés, A.A.,
"Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Clad Rebar," Paper No. 01645
presented at CORROSION/01, Houston, TX, March 11-16, 2001.
- Cui, F. and Sagüés, A.A.,
"Corrosion Performance of Stainless Steel Clad Reinforcing Bar in
Concrete," Paper No. 03310 presented at CORROSION/03, San Diego,
CA, March 16-20, 2003.
- "Pier in Progreso, Mexico:
Inspection Report Evaluation of the Stainless Steel Reinforcement,"
RAMBOLL Consulting Engineers and Planners, Denmark, March
1999.
- Castro-Borges, P., de Rincón,
O.T, Moreno, E.I., Torres-Acosta, A.A., Martínez-Madrid, M., and
Knudsen, A., "Performance of a 60-Year-Old Concrete Pier with
Stainless Steel Reinforcement," Materials Performance,
Vol. 41(10), 2002, p. 50.
- McDonald, D.B., Sherman, M.R.,
Pfeifer, D.W., and Virmani, Y.P., "Stainless Steel Reinforcing as
Corrosion Protection," Concrete International, May
1995.
- Ip, A.K.C, Pianca, F., and Hope,
B.B, "Application of Stainless Steel Reinforcement for Highway
Bridges in Ontario," paper presented at the CONSEA Conference,
Norway, 1998.
- Hope, B.B., Some Corrosion
Aspects of Stainless Steel Reinforcement in Concrete, Report
No. MI-181, Ontario Ministry of Transportation, November 24,
2000.
- Pianca, F., Assessment of
Stainless Steel Clad Reinforcement for Ministry Use, Concrete
Section, Materials Engineering and Research Office, Ontario
Ministry of Transportation, December 2000.