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Publication Number: FHWA-HRT-04-097
Date: August 2007

Measured Variability Of Southern Yellow Pine - Manual for LS-DYNA Wood Material Model 143

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2.4 MODEL FORMULATION

Elastic Constitutive Equations

The general constitutive relationship for an orthotropic material, written in terms of the principal material directions, is:(16)

This equation reads Stress component subscript 1 equals C subscript 11, C subscript 12, C subscript 13, 0, 0, 0 equals strain component subscript 1. Stress component subscript 2 equals C subscript 12, C subscript 22, C subscript 23, 0, 0, 0 equals strain component subscript 2. Stress component subscript 3 equals C subscript 13, C subscript 23, C subscript 33, 0, 0, 0 equals strain component subscript 3. Stress component subscript 4 equals 0, 0, 0, 2C subscript 44, 0, 0 equals strain component subscript 4. Stress component subscript 5 equals 0, 0, 0, 0, 2c subscript 55, 0 equals strain component subscript 5. Stress component subscript 6 equals 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2C subscript 66 equals strain component subscript 6.

The subscripts 1, 2, and 3 refer to the longitudinal, tangential, and radial stresses and strains (s1 = s11, s2 = s22, s3 = s33, e1 = e11, e2 = e22, and e3 = e33, respectively). The subscripts 4, 5, and 6 are in a shorthand notation that refers to the shearing stresses and strains (s4 = s12, s5 = s23, s6 = s13, e4 = e12, e5 = e23, and e6 = e13). As an alternative notation for wood, it is common to substitute L (longitudinal) for 1, R (radial) for 2, and T (tangential) for 3. The components of the constitutive matrix, Cij, are listed here in terms of the nine independent elastic constants of an orthotropic material:

This equation reads C subscript 11 equals the product of Capital E subscript 11 times parenthesis 1 minus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 23 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 32 parenthesis divided by Delta.
This equation reads C subscript 22 equals the product of Capital E subscript 22 times parenthesis 1 minus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 31 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 13 parenthesis divided by Delta.
This equation reads Capital C subscript 33 equals E subscript 33 parenthesis 1 minus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 12 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 21 parenthesis divided by Delta.
This equation reads Capital C subscript 12 equals the product of parenthesis IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 21 plus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 31 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 23 parenthesis times E subscript 11 divided by Delta.
This equation reads Capital C subscript13 equals the product of parenthesis IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 31 plus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 21 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 32 parenthesis times E subscript 11 divided by Delta.
This equation reads Capital C subscript 23 equals the product of parenthesis IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 32 plus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 12 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 31 parenthesis times E subscript 22 divided by Delta.
This equation reads Capital C subscript 44 equals Capital G subscript 12.
This equation reads Capital C subscript 55 equals Capital G subscript 13.
This equation reads Capital C subscript 66 equals Capital G subscript 23.
This equation reads Delta equals 1 minus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 12 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 21 minus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 23 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 32 minus the product of IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 31 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 13 minus the product of 2 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 21 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 32 times IMPACT VELOCITY subscript 13.

The following identity, relating the dependent (minor Poisson’s ratios v21, v31, and v32) and independent elastic constants, is obtained from symmetry considerations of the constitutive matrix:

This equation reads Poisson's ratio over normal moduli subscript I equals Poisson's ratio over normal moduli subscript j for i, j equals 1, 2, 3.

One common assumption is that wood materials are transversely isotropic. This means that the properties in the tangential and radial directions are modeled the same (i.e., E22 = E33, G12 = G13, and v12 = v13). This reduces the number of independent elastic constants to five: E11, E22, v12, G12, and G23. Furthermore, the Poisson’s ratio in the isotropic plane, v23, is not an independent quantity. It is calculated from the isotropic relationship v  = (E2G)/2G, where E = E22 = E33 and G = G23. Transverse isotropy is a reasonable assumption because the difference between the tangential and radial properties of wood (particularly southern yellow pine and Douglas fir) is small in comparison with the difference between the tangential and longitudinal properties.

Yield Surfaces

The yield surfaces parallel and perpendicular to the grain are formulated from six ultimate strength measurements obtained from uniaxial and pure-shear tests on wood specimens:

XT Tensile strength parallel to the grain
XC Compressive strength parallel to the grain
YT Tensile strength perpendicular to the grain
YC Compressive strength perpendicular to the grain
S||  Shear strength parallel to the grain
S┴  Shear strength perpendicular to the grain

The formulation is based on the work of Hashin.(27)

Parallel Modes

For the parallel modes, the yield criterion is composed of two terms involving two of the five stress invariants of a transversely isotropic material. These invariants are I subscript 1 equals stress component subscript 11 and I subscript 4 equals stress component subscript 12 superscript 2 plus stress component subscript 13 superscript 2. This criterion predicts that the normal and shear stresses are mutually weakening (i.e., the presence of shear stress reduces the strength below that measured in the uniaxial stress tests). Yielding occurs when f|| ≥ 0, where:

This equation reads Parallel yield surface function equals orthotropic stress component subscript 11 superscript 2 over general wood strength superscript 2 plus parenthesis orthotropic stress component subscript 12 superscript 2 plus orthotropic stress component subscript 13 superscript 2 parenthesis over parallel shear strength superscript 2 minus 1. General parallel wood strength equals tension parallel wood strength when orthotropic stress component subscript 11 is greater that zero and general parallel wood strength equals compression parallel wood strength when orthotropic stress component subscript 11 is less than zero.

Perpendicular Modes

For the perpendicular modes, the yield criterion is also composed of two terms involving two of the five stress invariants of a transversely isotropic material. These invariants are I2 = s22 + s33 and I subscript 3 equals stress component subscript 23 superscript 2 minus stess component subscript 22 stress component subscript 33. Yielding occurs when f^ ≥ 0, where:

This equation reads Perpendicular yield surface function equals parenthesis orthotropic stress component subscript 22 plus orthotropic stress component subscript 33 parenthesis superscript 2 over general perpendicular wood strength superscript 2 plus parenthesis orthotropic stress component subscript 23 superscript 2 minus orthotropic stress component subscript 22 times orthotropic stress component subscript 33 parenthesis over perpendicular shear strength superscript 2 minus 1. General perpendicular wood strength equals perpendicular tension wood strength when orthotropic stress component subscript 22 plus orthotropic stress material subscript 33 is greater than zero and general perpendicular wood strength equals perpendicular compression wood strength when orthotropic stress component subscript 22 plus orthotropic stress material subscript 33 is less than zero.

Each yield criterion is plotted in three dimensions in figure 26 in terms of the parallel and perpendicular stresses. Each criterion is a smooth surface (no corners).

Plastic Flow

The plasticity algorithms limit the stress components once the yield criteria in equations 111 and 112 are satisfied. This is done by returning the trial elastic stress state back to the yield surface. The stress and strain tensors are partitioned into elastic and plastic parts. Partitioning is done with a return mapping algorithm that enforces the plastic consistency condition. Separate plasticity algorithms are formulated for the parallel and perpendicular modes by enforcing separate consistency conditions. No input parameters are required.

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Figure 26.

Yield criteria for wood produce smooth surfaces in stress space.

Hardening

Wood exhibits prepeak nonlinearity in compression parallel and perpendicular to the grain. Separate translating yield surface formulations are modeled for the parallel and perpendicular modes, which simulate gradual changes in moduli. Each initial yield surface hardens until it coincides with the ultimate yield surface, as shown in figure 27. The initial location of the yield surface determines the onset of plasticity. The rate of translation determines the extent of nonlinearity.

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Figure 27.

Prepeak nonlinearity in compression is modeled with translating yield surfaces that allow user to specify hardening response.

For each mode (parallel and perpendicular), the user inputs two parameters―the initial yield surface location in uniaxial compression, N, and the rate of translation, c. If the user wants prepeak nonlinearity to initiate at 70 percent of the peak strength, then the user would input N = 0.3, so that 1 – N = 0.7. If the user wants rapid hardening, then a large value of c is input (e.g., c = 1000). If the user wants gradual hardening, then a small value of c is input (e.g., c = 10).

The state variable that defines the translation of the yield surface is known as backstress and is denoted by aij. Hardening is modeled in compression, but not shear, so the only backstress required for the parallel modes is a11. The value of the backstress is a11 = 0 upon initial yield and a11 = –N|| Xc at ultimate yield (in uniaxial compression). The maximum backstress occurs at ultimate yield and is equal to the total translation of the yield surface in stress space. The backstress components required for the perpendicular modes are a22 and a33. The value of the backstress sum is a22 + a33 = 0 upon initial yield and a22 + a33 = –N^ Yc at ultimate yield (biaxial compression without shear).

Damage

Separate damage formulations are modeled for the parallel and perpendicular modes. These formulations are loosely based on the work of Simo and Ju.(21) If failure occurs in the parallel modes, then all six stress components are degraded uniformly. This is because parallel failure is catastrophic and will render the wood useless. If failure occurs in the perpendicular modes, then only three perpendicular stress components are degraded. This is because perpendicular failure is not catastrophic; the wood may continue to carry load in the parallel direction. Based on these assumptions, the following degradation model is implemented:

This equation reads D subscript M equals Max d instantaneous parallel strain energy type term for damage accumulation, d instantaneous perpendicular strain energy type term for damage accumulation.
This equation reads d parallel equals d instantaneous parallel strain energy type term for damage accumulation.
This equation reads orthotropic stress component subscript 11 equals the product of parenthesis 1 minus d parallel parenthesis times viscid stress tensor subscript 11.
This equation reads orthotropic stress component subscript 22 equals the product of parenthesis 1 minus d subscript m parenthesis times viscid stress tensor subscript 22.
This equation reads orthotropic stress component subscript 33 equals the product of parenthesis 1 minus d subscript m parenthesis times viscid stress tensor subscript 33.
This equation reads orthotropic stress component subscript 12 equals the product of parenthesis 1 minus d parallel parenthesis times viscid stress tensor subscript 12.
This equation reads orthotropic stress component subscript 13 equals the product of parenthesis 1 minus d parallel parenthesis times viscid stress tensor subscript 13.
This equation reads orthotropic stress component subscript 23 equals the product of parenthesis 1 minus d subscript m parenthesis times viscid stress tensor subscript 23.

Here, each scalar damage parameter, d, transforms the stress tensor associated with the undamaged state, viscid stress tensor subscript ij, into the stress tensor associated with the damaged state, sij. The stress tensor viscid stress tensor subscript ij is calculated by the plasticity algorithm (including viscoplasticity) prior to application of the damage model. Each damage parameter ranges from zero for no damage to approaching unity for maximum damage. Thus, 1 – d is a reduction factor associated with the amount of damage. Each damage parameter evolves as a function of a strain energy-type term. Mesh-size dependency is regulated via a length scale based on the element size (cube root of volume). Damage-based softening is brittle in tension, less brittle in shear, and ductile (no softening) in compression, as demonstrated in figure 28.

Element erosion occurs when an element fails in the parallel mode and the parallel damage parameter exceeds d|| = 0.99. Elements do not automatically erode when an element fails in the perpendicular mode. A flag is available that, when set, allows elements to erode when the perpendicular damage parameter exceeds d^ = 0.99. Setting this flag (IFAIL) is not recommended unless excessive perpendicular damage is causing computational difficulties.

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Figure 28.

Softening response modeled for parallel modes of southern yellow pine.

Rate Effects

Data available in the literature for pine indicate that dynamic strength enhancement is more pronounced in the perpendicular direction than in the parallel direction.(16) Therefore, separate rate-effect formulations are modeled for the parallel and perpendicular modes. The formulations increase strength with increasing strain rate by expanding each yield surface:

Parallel

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Perpendicular

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where:
X and Y =  static strengths
X DYNAMIC and Y DYNAMIC =  dynamic strengths
CEffective strain rate(1-n)h =  excess stress components

The excess stress components depend on the value of the fluidity parameter, h; the stiffness, C; and the effective strain rate, Effective strain rate. When rate effects are requested via the flag IRATE = 1, the dynamic strengths are used in place of the static strengths in the yield surface formulations.

Setting n > 0 allows the user to model a nonlinear variation in dynamic strength with strain rate. Setting n = 0 allows the user to model a linear variation in dynamic strength with strain rate.

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