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Multi-Pollutant Emissions Benefits of Transportation Strategies-FHWA

Appendix A: List of Transportation Strategies

This appendix includes a list of transportation emission reduction strategies that is intended to be comprehensive of the full range of strategies that would be examined by transportation agencies as part of transportation conformity analyses or other emissions analyses. Although this list is intended to be comprehensive, it is not exhaustive of all potential strategies. Two primary criteria were applied for inclusion of strategies:

The strategy can be implemented by policy makers at a state or local level (i.e., it does not require a change in federal law or federal action) - Many strategies in the list below can be funded or implemented directly by transportation agencies (e.g., transit programs, traffic flow improvements). However, we did not limit the list only to those that would be implemented directly by transportation agencies. Some strategies are typically funded by state air agencies (e.g., inspection and maintenance programs, vehicle buy-back programs) or require implementation by local governments (e.g., land use policies, parking policies).
The strategy is generally considered at least marginally useful as an emission reduction strategy -Some strategies have limited documentation of effectiveness, and may not generate significant emission reductions on their own; however, all strategies included are generally considered to be supportive of other strategies and contributing to emissions reductions.

The strategies are grouped into four broad categories:

Transportation demand management (TDM) strategies - these strategies generally focus on reducing the amount of vehicle travel;
Transportation system management (TSM) / driver behavior-oriented strategies - these strategies generally focus on improving the operating characteristics of vehicles, affecting speeds, traffic flow, idling, etc.;
Vehicle, fuels, and technology strategies - these strategies generally focus on reducing vehicle emission rates; and
Non-road transportation strategies - these strategies address railroads, marine vessels, airport ground support equipment, and other non-road engines.

Some individual strategies fall into more than one of these categories (e.g., high-occupancy vehicle lanes can be considered both a TDM and TSM strategy since they encourage ridesharing, and also may help to improve traffic flow) but are only listed once in order to avoid duplication.
Within these four broad categories, the strategies have been sub-categorized so that those with similar goals or targets are grouped together (e.g., transit strategies are grouped together, as are bicycle and pedestrian strategies). Often, strategies within a sub-category are implemented together and are analyzed as a package. In total, this memo identifies 137 different strategies in 29 sub-categories. For many of the strategies, examples of specific implementation approaches are provided. Although each of these examples is sometimes listed as a separate strategy in other resource documents, the examples for a given strategy generally serve the same purpose and would typically use the same general methodology for emissions analysis.

Each of the strategies focuses on policy or programmatic approaches that could be implemented by the public sector. Following the strategies, a table identifies specific technologies that can be applied as emission reduction measures.

Transportation Demand Management Strategies

Transportation demand management (TDM) strategies focus on changing travel behavior - trip rates, trip length, travel mode, time-of-day, etc. Most TDM projects/programs reduce emissions by reducing trips and/or vehicle miles traveled (VMT) by personal motor vehicles, or by shifting trips from peak periods to less congested periods. These strategies are listed below.

1. Shared Ride Programs/Projects

Strategy	Examples
Park-and-Ride facilities	New park-and-ride facility Add parking to existing facilities
High-Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes	Separate roadway for exclusive HOV use Barrier separated lanes within freeway right-of-way Concurrent flow lane Contra-flow lane HOV on arterial streets Bypass lanes for HOVs at metered freeway entrance ramps
Regional rideshare outreach/matching	Implement regional rideshare matching programs Upgrade ridematching software (for full regional address recognition, corridor searching, etc.
Regional rideshare incentives	Carpool incentives (e.g., free gas card, drawings) Vanpool incentives (e.g., subsidized vanpools)
Dynamic rideshare programs	Real-time rideshare matching
Encourage shared ride taxis
Regional vanpool network
Short-distance vanpools	Vanshare program providing access from transit to workplaces

2. Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs/Projects

Strategy	Examples
New bicycle paths, lanes, routes, or safety enhancements	Bicycle paths/lanes On-street bicycle routes Multi-use trails Rails-to-trails conversions Bicycle safety enhancements (lighting, grades, markings, etc.)
Bicycle parking	Bicycle racks Bicycle lockers Attended bicycle parking Ordinances requiring bicycle parking
Bikes on transit programs	Bicycles on buses Bicycles on rail
Bicycle information	Informational signage (e.g., Share the Road signs, designated bicycle routes) Bicycle maps/plans Bicycle educational information, including bicycle safety information Bicycle coordinators Bicycle awareness/safety events
Bicycle share programs	Public use bicycles Bike stations providing maintenance facilities
Financial incentives to own bicycles	Free bikes program Cash rebates for bicycle purchases
Pedestrian connections/sidewalks	New sidewalks Sidewalk improvements (curb ramps, sidewalk gap closure, etc.) Pedestrian bridges/tunnels Mid-block pedestrian connections
Enhancing the pedestrian environment	Wider sidewalks Tree plantings Crosswalk light fixtures Street lights Sidewalk furniture (benches, etc.) Pedestrian safety modifications (count down pedestrian signals)

3. Transit

Strategy	Examples
New transit routes/services	New bus routes New rail lines Demand response shuttle Circulator buses Express bus service
More frequent service	Additional buses in service on existing routes (to reduce headways)
Longer service hours	Expansion beyond peak periods Late night hours
More capacity on services	Larger buses Additional railcars on trains Redesign of seating/standing
Faster travel times/improved system performance	Busways/bus rapid transit (BRT) Improved bus/rail integration Transit signal prioritization Improved connections/reduced transfer times Transit centers Change routing
Passenger amenities	Bus shelters Benches/seating at bus stops Improved maintenance of buses/trains and stops/stations
Improved transit access	Increased parking at transit stations Shuttle and feeder bus services Improved pedestrian/bicycle access and bicycle parking
Transit information	Signage/maps/schedules at bus/train stops Signage/maps/schedules at major activity centers (e.g., malls, sports venues, etc.) Terminal displays/kiosks with real-time passenger information Transit information kiosks (e.g., in suburban employment sites, downtown, tourist sites) Web page with transit planning capabilities Inclusion of transit information in 511 and other travel planning services Real-time text messaging/on-line information on bus schedules
Transit marketing and promotions	Transit promotional campaign Branding of services / routes
Reduced fares/free services	Lower transit fares Fare free zones Free transit services
Fare structure/convenience improvements	Fare structure simplifications Elimination of fares for transfers SmartCards Automated fareboxes
Transit pass programs	Monthly passes Annual passes Ecopasses/universal passes Multimodal/Smart passes (for transit, parking, carshare) Off-peak pass (low cost pass for unlimited use in off-peak hours)
"Try it" transit pass give-aways	Promotional transit pass give aways First month free program for new services

4. Parking Management

Strategy	Examples
Parking pricing / fees	Increase public parking fees Increase taxes on parking providers Impose or increase fees/surcharges on SOVs Free or reduced priced parking for carpools/vanpools
Parking supply limits	Parking maximums for new development Regional parking caps Create parking/traffic-free zones Peak-hour parking bans Curb-parking restrictions
Preferential parking for carpools/vanpools	Premium parking spots for carpools/vanpools Guaranteed parking for carpools/vanpools
Parking cash out program

5. Pricing

Strategy	Examples
Road pricing	New tolls Increase tolls on roads Increase bridge tolls High Occupancy Toll (HOT) lanes
Cordon pricing	Charge vehicles for entering high-use area, such as CBD
Variable priced tolls	Peak period surcharge Prices vary based on traffic levels
Variable parking fees
Pay-As-You-Drive Vehicle Insurance	Incentives for per-mile vehicle insurance Pilot programs for per-mile vehicle insurance
VMT-based registration fees
Increase in gas tax
Employee tax credits	Tax credit for using transit, HOV, or bicycling

6. Employer-based TDM Programs

Note: A wide range of different employer-based demand management options are available, including: transit passes, vanpool subsidies, rideshare matching, bicycle lockers/showers, telecommuting programs, flexible work hours, compressed work schedules, etc. These programs typically are not promoted individually but as packages of strategies, and would be analyzed as a comprehensive program. As a result, the list below focuses on government policies or programs, not individual TDM program elements. The analysis of these strategies requires an assessment of levels of participation in different types of TDM activities.

Strategy	Examples
Employer marketing and support	Outreach to employers/information programs to encourage commute options Recognition/awards programs
Telecommuting support/incentives	Support in establishing telecommuting programs Telecommuting financial incentives
Telework centers	Remote/satellite offices close to residential areas Telework centers in communities
On-going incentives for employer-based transit/vanpool/carpool programs	Subsidized transit passes Subsidized vanpools Tax credit for employers that offer TDM programs, employer transportation coordinators, etc.
Start up incentives for employer-based transit/vanpool/carpool programs	Short-term (start-up) financial incentives for implementing transit pass program Short-term (start-up) financial incentives for implementing vanpool/carpooling program
Implement programs at government worksites	Flexible work hours programs Compressed work scheduled programs Telecommuting Promote ridesharing, transit, bicycling, walking
Mandatory commute trip reduction programs	Mandatory programs for employers of certain size Mandatory program for employers in certain locations/business districts
Regional guaranteed ride home program	Guaranteed ride home program Emergency ride home program
Support proximate commuting	Reassigning employees so they can work at a location closest to home

7. Non-employer-based TDM Programs

Strategy	Examples
School-based programs	School pools Safe Routes to Schools programs "Walking bus" programs
Campus programs	University parking pricing / TDM programs
Community-based programs	Community association/residential building based TDM programs
Development-based programs	Require new developments to meet trip reduction targets, implement TDM programs
Airport-based programs	Airport parking / TDM programs
Tourism promotions	Hotel partnerships to promote transit use, walking/bicycling Tourism site partnerships to promote transit use, ridesharing, walking, bicycling
Special events-based programs	Stadium events management Festivals and other events management Combined event ticket/transit pass

8. Outreach/Marketing/Education

Strategy	Examples
Regional TDM program outreach	Media campaigns/Public service announcements Voluntary "No Drive,""Share a Ride" Days
Episodic (Spare the Air / Ozone Action Days) programs	Media campaigns Ozone Action Coordinators Free/reduced price transit on Ozone Action Days Special incentives on Spare the Air Days Voluntary business closures / business practices
Educational curriculum	Incorporate air quality awareness into public school curriculum Incorporate information about transit, ridesharing into public school curriculum
Transportation management organizations	Regional Commute Management Organizations Local Transportation Management Associations

9.Integrated Land Use-Transportation Planning

Note: A wide range of different land use policy mechanisms are available, including: zoning requirements, impact fees, developer incentives, regional growth boundaries, etc. These policies typically would not be analyzed individually but as a package of strategies that affects land use patterns, and hence, travel and emissions. As a result, these strategies are not listed individually. Sometimes, strategies are identified based on the focus of the efforts: transit-oriented development, mixed-use activity centers, pedestrian-oriented design, etc. Five strategies are listed below that are organized around different types of programmatic approaches.

Strategy	Examples
Transit-oriented development (TOD) programs	Joint-development programs
Programs/requirements/ incentives to encourage better regional land use/transportation coordination	Developer incentives (e.g., density bonuses for development near transit/urban core, reduced impact fees in TOD) Impact fees Zoning requirements Regional growth boundaries Concurrency requirements (adequate public facilities ordinances) Accessibility contracts (e.g., preferred access to road system for land use projects that reduce trips)
Programs/requirements/ incentives to improve community design	Design standards (requirements for amenities, layout to street, etc.) Incentives for developers to incorporate public spaces and other amenities into new developments
Neighborhood schools	Locate schools in communities, with access via walking and bicycling
Incentives to live near work/transit/downtown	Location Efficient Mortgage Energy Efficient Mortgage Tax credits for redeveloping in blighted neighborhoods Tax credits for living downtown

10. Vehicle Use Restrictions

Strategy	Examples
Auto-free zones	Pedestrian malls Transit malls Car bans in CBD
Limit access to HOVs only	Require 2+ vehicle occupancy to enter designated congested activity centers/parking facilities during peak periods
No Drive Days

11. Other Options to Reduce Auto Ownership / Avoid Vehicle Trips

Strategy	Examples
Carsharing programs	Car-sharing programs Station cars Incentives for use of carsharing programs
Using technology to avoid vehicle trips	E-government initiatives Use teleconferences/web conferences

Transportation System Management / Vehicle Driver Behavior-Oriented Strategies

Transportation system management (TSM)strategies focus on changing the operation of the transportation system, typically with a primary focus on improving traffic flow and reducing traveler delay. TSM programs can reduce emissions by changing vehicle speeds, reducing rapid vehicle accelerations and decelerations, and reducing vehicle idling. Many of these strategies are under the umbrella of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). In addition, some strategies focus directly on encouraging changes in driving behavior through educational information, incentives, or restrictions on driving speeds, operating patterns, and idling. These strategies are listed below.

12. Traffic Signal Synchronization

Strategy	Examples
Signal retiming
Advanced traffic signal controls	Adjust traffic control/signals based on traffic levels

13. Roadway / Intersection Improvements

Strategy	Examples
One-way streets	Convert two-way streets to one-way to improve operations
Turn restrictions	Restrict left turns on two-way streets
Turning lanes	Separate turning vehicles from through traffic to avoid unnecessary backups
Roundabouts	Implement traffic circles to improve traffic movement
Limit on-street parking	Remove or limit on-street parking during peak hours Enforce on-street parking limits
Intersection improvements	Construct interchanges instead of signalized intersections Develop tunnels/overpasses Grade separations at railroad/transit crossings
Bus pullouts	Bus pullouts in curbs Queue jumper lanes for passenger loading/unloading

14. Incident Management / Operations

Strategy	Examples
Incident management programs	Intersection/corridor monitoring and response Call number to report incidents Roadside assistance vehicles Motorist aid call boxes Rerouting traffic at incidents Active/dynamic traffic management systems (e.g., manage speeds; routes)
Ramp metering
Encourage use of underutilized capacity	Route marking directing traffic to underutilized capacity Reversible traffic lanes
Allow use of road shoulders during peak periods/to get around incidents

15. Traveler Information Systems

Strategy	Examples
Real-time traveler information systems	Variable message signs (directing traffic from incidents) Variable message signs and information including comparative travel times Real-time information services (including integrated, multi-modal information) Web site with real-time traffic information, speed information Toll-free phone number (511)
Real-time parking information	Availability updates (to reduce unnecessary searching for parking) Automated reservations and payment

16. Speed Control

Strategy	Examples
Lower speed limits	55 mph highways
Increased speed enforcement	Photo speed enforcement Increased police enforcement Enforcement against aggressive driving (to reduce crashes/incidents, which cause delay)
Driver training/education	Information about saving fuel with less vehicle stops/starts

17. Access Management

Strategy	Examples
Access management	Limit development of access points to arterials/highways Parallel access roads

18. Shifting/Separating Freight Movements

Strategy	Examples
Shifting freight movement to off-peak periods	PierPASS program
Truck-only lanes/routes	Truck-only lanes Truck-only roads/routes
Truck restrictions	Road restrictions on trucks Restrictions during peak hours
Consolidated freight/package delivery	Consolidation at peripheral CBD locations or neighborhood locations
Rail shuttles	Containers brought to inland distribution center
Container matching services	Transport of empty containers minimized

19. Anti-Idling

Strategy	Examples
Anti-idling restrictions	School bus anti-idling restrictions Truck anti-idling restrictions Personal vehicle anti-idling restrictions (in specific zones, near schools, etc.)
Anti-idling information campaigns	Idling reminder hang-tags for trucks and commercial fleets Remote idling reminders (On-Star-type service) Inclusion of information in drivers education and at auto dealerships
Restrictions on drive-through services
Freight facility improvements	Expansion/improvement of port terminals, intermodal facilities, etc. to reduce queuing and idling

Vehicle, Fuels, and Technology Strategies

Vehicle, fuel, and technology projects and programs are designed to change the emission rates of vehicles either by changing the fuel being used, the type of vehicle or emissions control technology, or a combination of both. Some programs also focus on eliminating gross polluters, or vehicles whose emissions controls have failed, or on controlling specific types of emissions (e.g., road dust). These strategies are listed below.

20. Accelerated Vehicle Retirement/Fleet Renewal/Replacement

Strategy	Examples
Vehicle buy-back programs	Vehicle scrapping program
Fleet renewal / clean vehicle programs	School bus replacements Transit bus purchases/replacements New purchases/replacements of heavy-duty trucks for solid waste trucks, etc. New purchases/replacements of light-duty vehicles (e.g., government fleets) Repowering / replacing existing older diesel engine with a newer, cleaner engine.

21. Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicle Repowering/Retrofits*

Note: There are a range of technologies that can be used to retrofit heavy duty diesel vehicles, including particulate filters, oxidation catalysts, flow through filters, crankcase filters, NOX reducing catalysts, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), and selective catalytic reduction. Each of these technologies has a different effect on pollutants of concern, and can be examined as an emissions reduction measure independently. Strategies listed below are those that are policy/program options available to state/local governments.

Strategy	Examples
Mandatory fleet retrofits
Government contracting requirements
Voluntary programs with funding	Carl Moyer, TERP-type programs

* See section "Samples of Technology Samples/Options" for a more detailed list of technology options

22. Idle Reduction Technologies

Strategy	Examples
Truck stop electrification
Purchase of auxiliary power units	APUs Electronically-driven auxiliary systems

23. Purchases of Advanced Technology and Alternative Fuel Vehicles

Strategy	Examples
Cleaner diesel fuels	Emulsified diesel Oxygenated diesel Biodiesel Fuel borne catalyst
Purchases of alternative fuel vehicles (buses, other heavy-duty vehicles, light-duty vehicles)	LNG vehicles CNG vehicles Ethanol / methanol LPG vehicles Electric vehicles

24. Programs to Encourage Purchases of Advanced Technology/Alternative Fuel Vehicles

Strategy	Examples
General tax / financial incentives	Tax credits for purchase of low emissions vehicles Tax credits for purchase of alternative fuel vehicle Feebates Vehicle emissions fees
Specific target market programs with funding	CNG taxicab program
HOV lane use allowed for advanced technology/ alternative fuel vehicles
Preferential/free parking for advanced technology/ alternative fuel vehicles
Government contracting requirements	Contracts requiring alternative fuel/low emissions vehicles

25. Inspection and Maintenance

Strategy	Examples
Basic I&M
Enhanced I&M and on-board diagnostics
Remote Sensing	Roadside pullovers
Smoking vehicle programs	Toll-free number for reporting high polluting vehicles
Heavy-duty vehicle inspections

26. Road Dust Reduction Strategies

Strategy	Examples
Mitigation for unpaved roads	Apply water Apply wet gravel Apply chemical/organic dust suppressant Use vegetative matter to reduce blowing dust
Road paving	Pave previously unpaved roads Pave road shoulders
Street sweeping	Regular street sweeping on paved roads Sweeping to remove sand and other de-icing/de-skid materials on paved roads
Transportation construction site mitigation efforts	Require water or chemical stabilizers to be applied Require wind barriers

Non-Road Strategies

Non-road vehicles and equipment include railroads, marine vessels, airport ground support equipment, lawn and garden equipment, construction and agricultural equipment, and other mobile equipment. There are a wide range of technologies and operational strategies available to address these sources. The list of strategies below focuses on policies and programs. Following this strategy list is an appendix that includes more detail on the specific types of modifications that can be made to equipment.

27. Encourage Replacement/Repowering/Retrofits*

Strategy	Examples
Mandatory fleet retrofits	Only CA requirements can be adopted
Scrappage programs	Equipment buy-back programs Replacement of gasoline lawnmowers with electric Replace older yard tractors with newer, lower emission ones
Government contracting requirements regarding vehicle/equipment technologies
Voluntary repower / retrofit programs, with funding*	Carl Moyer, TERP-type programs

* See section "Samples of Technology Samples/Options" for a more detailed list of technology options

28. Encourage / Implement Use of Alternative Fuels

Strategy	Examples
Encourage use of on-road fuels by non-road diesel vehicles	Use of ultra low-sulfur on-road diesel
Purchase alternative fuel vehicles / equipment	Purchase CNG street sweepers
Incentives for purchase of alternative fuel vehicles / equipment
Rail electrification	Commuter rail electrification

29. Encourage / Implement Operational Improvements and Anti-Idling Technologies

Strategy	Examples
Rail infrastructure improvements	Track geometry improvements Use of concrete ties/heavier rails
Rail operational strategies/practices	Switcher yard locomotives (anti-idling) Idle reductions using APUs Idle reductions using automatic shut-down
Marine vessel equipment modifications	Hull design/larger vessels Increased atomization Reduction of dead volume/Reduced sack volume
Marine vessel fleet operational strategies/practices	Speed reductions Vessel route modifications Programmable logic controllers Hull cleaning Cold ironing (anti-idling technologies while in port) Shoreside power
Airport operational strategies	Idling reduction policy Full electrification of gates / ground electrification / HVAC systems at gates Improved airport configuration and expanded capacity (to reduce idling)
Government contracting requirements limiting idling	Contracting requirements limiting idling during construction/maintenance activities

Samples of Technology Approaches/Options

Approach	Options
Heavy-duty diesel engine retrofits (trucks, locomotives, marine vessels, other)	Particulate filters Flow through filters Diesel oxidation catalysts Crank case filters NOX reducing catalysts Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) Selective catalytic reduction
Locomotive engine modifications	Low heat rejection Bottoming cycles Improved engine lubricants Use of hybrid switcher locomotives Scrappage/fleet renewal
Railroad equipment modifications	Tare weight reduction, higher capacity cars Use of low-friction bearings Use of improved suspensions Use of hopper car covers Use of steerable rail car trucks Energy-minimizing train control Improved drive-train lubricants
Railroad alternative fuels	Use of natural gas Use of cellulosic ethanol
Marine vessel engine modifications	Cooled exhaust gas recirculation Charge air cooling Turbocharging Electric propulsion Podded propulsion Pre-injection Modified valve timing Lower compression ratio Detail design of combustion space Water injection in cyclinder Variable exhaust back pressure More uniform injection Insulating combustion space Shutting off cyclinder at low load Delay injector timing; injector upgrade Exhaust gas recirculation system or engine cycle modification Install an inlet air humidification system Modify cylinder heads for direct water injection
Marine vessel alternative fuels	Fuel homogenization Fuel/water emulsion Humid air motor technology Use of off-road diesel instead of residual fuel Use of ULSD Uses of LNG Use of Fischer-Tropsch diesel Use of Biodiesel Use of ethanol-blended diesel Use of low sulfur marine diesel fuel (SECA) Control fuel oil quality
Airport ground support equipment engine modifications/ alternative fuels	Replace GSE with LPG/CNG equipment Replace 2-stroke engines with 4-stroke gasoline equipment Use of hybrid or electric ground support vehicles Replace mobile GSE with fixed, electrically hardwired "at gate" equipment Use of alternative fuels in ground support vehicles (e.g., ultra low sulfur diesel)