U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration
1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE
Washington, DC 20590
202-366-4000


Skip to content
Facebook iconYouTube iconTwitter iconFlickr iconLinkedInInstagram

Federal Highway Administration Research and Technology
Coordinating, Developing, and Delivering Highway Transportation Innovations

 
REPORT
This report is an archived publication and may contain dated technical, contact, and link information
Back to Publication List        
Publication Number:  FHWA-HRT-15-043    Date:  June 2015
Publication Number: FHWA-HRT-15-043
Date: June 2015

 

Investigating Improvements to Pedestrian Crossings With An Emphasis on The Rectangular Rapid-Flashing Beacon

REFERENCES

  1. Furst, A. (2008) “MUTCD—Interim Approval for Optional Use of Rectangular Rapid Flashing Beacons (IA-11),” U.S. Department of Transportation FHWA Memorandum, July16, Washington, DC.

  2. FHWA (2009) Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Available at http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/. Accessed May 15, 2015.

  3. Shurbutt, J. and Van Houten, R. (2010) Effects of Yellow Rectangular Rapid-Flashing Beacons on Yielding at Multilane Uncontrolled Crosswalks. FHWA-HRT-10-043, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  4. Pécheux, K., Bauer, J., and McLeod, P. (2009) Pedestrian Safety Engineering and ITS-Based Countermeasures Program for Reducing Pedestrian Fatalities, Injury Conflicts, and Other Surrogate Measures Final System Impact Report. FHWA, Washington, DC.

  5. Hunter, W.W., Srinivasan, R., and Martell, C.A. (2009) Evaluation of the Rectangular Rapid Flash Beacon at a Pinellas Trail Crossing in St. Petersburg, Florida. FDOT, Tallahassee, FL.

  6. Brewer, M.A., Fitzpatrick, K., Larson, G.W., and Minter, H. (2011) “Before-and-After Study of the Effectiveness of Rectangular Rapid-Flashing Beacons Used With School Sign in Garland, Texas,” Technical Memorandum to City of Garland Department of Transportation. TTI, College Station, TX.

  7. Ross, J., Serpico, D., and Lewis, R. (2011) Assessment of Driver Yielding Rates Pre- and Post-RRFB Installation, Bend, Oregon. Oregon DOT, Salem, OR.

  8. Morrissey, S. (2013) Circular Rapid Flashing Beacons—Santa Monica, CA, Final Report for FHWA Item 4(09)-8(E). Available at http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/traffops/engineering/ctcdc/exp/2013-04-24_Final_rpt_4(09)-8.pdf. Accessed July 31, 2014.

  9. Domarad, J., Grisak, P., and Bolger, J. (2013) “Improving Crosswalk Safety: Rectangular Rapid-Flashing Beacons (RRFB) Trial in Calgary,” Canada Institute of Transportation Compendium. Available at http://www.cite7.org/conferences/compendium/2013_Pedestrian_ImprovingCrosswalkSafety.pdf.

  10. Bennett, M. K., Manal, H., Van Houten, R. (2014) “A Comparison of Gateway In-Street Sign Configuration to Other Driver Prompts to Increase Yielding to Pedestrians at Crosswalks,” Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 47(1), pp. 3–15. Spring. Available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.103/full.

  11. Fitzpatrick, K., Iragavarapu, V., Brewer, M.A., Lord, D., Hudson, J., Avelar, R., and Robertson, J. (2014) Characteristics of Texas Pedestrian Crashes and Evaluation of Driver Yielding at Pedestrian Treatments. FHWA/TX-14/0-6702-1.

  12. Fitzpatrick, K., Brewer, M., and Avelar, R. (2014) “Driver Yielding to Traffic Control Signals, Pedestrian Hybrid Beacons, and Rectangular Rapid-Flashing Beacons in Texas.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2463, Transportation Research Board (TRB), Washington, DC.

  13. Pisano, P. (2009) “R-376(I)—RRFB Overhead Mounting.” U.S. Department of Transportation FHWA Memorandum, December 9, Washington, DC. Accessed from http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/interpretations/4_376.htm. Accessed on July 9, 2013.

  14. Fambro, D.B., Fitzpatrick, K., and Koppa, R.J. (1997) Determination of Stopping Sight Distance. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 400. TRB.

  15. Carlson, P.J., Pike, A.M., Miles, J.D., Ullman, B.R., and Borchardt, D.W. (2012) Evaluation of Traffic Control Devices, Year 3. FHWA/TX-12/9-1001-2.

  16. Terry, T. and Gibbons, R. (2011) Assessment of the Impact of Color Contrast in the Detection and Recognition of Objects in a Road Environment. National Surface Transportation Safety Center for Excellence. 11-UL-016.

  17. Dewar, R. and Olson, P. (2007) Human Factors in Traffic Safety. Second Edition. Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company, Inc. Tucson, AZ.

  18. Schnell, T., Yekhshatyan, L., and Daiker, R. (2009) “Effect of Luminance and Text Size on Information Acquisition Time from Traffic Signs,” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2122, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC. pp.52–62.

  19. Dewar, R., Kline, D., Scheiber, F., and Swanson, A. (1997) Symbol Signing Design for Older Drivers. FHWA-RD-94-069. FHWA. Washington, DC.

  20. Katz, B., Dagnall, E., and Bertola, M.A. (2012). Comprehension and Legibility of Selected Symbol Signs, Phase III. Traffic Control Devices Pooled Fund Study. Access from: ftp://ftp.odot.state.or.us/OTCDC_SHARED/OTCDCMeetingRefDocs/Nov_16_2012_OTCDC_Docs/SymbolSigns3_FinalDraft[1].pdf. Accessed on July 25, 2013.

  21. Paniati, J.F. (1988) “Legibility and Comprehension of Traffic Sign Symbols,” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting.

  22. Schnell, T., Aktan, F., and Li, C. (2004) “Traffic Sign Luminance Requirements of Nighttime Drivers for Symbolic Signs.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1862, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC. pp. 24–35.

  23. Zwahlen, H. T. and Schnell, T. (1998) “Legibility of Traffic Sign Text and Symbols,” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1692, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC. pp.142–151.

  24. Signline. Issue 51. Conspicuity and Readability. Accessed from http://www.signs.org/Portals/0/docs/signline/signline_51.pdf. Accessed on July 19, 2013.

  25. Fitzpatrick, K., Chrysler, S., Sunkari, S., Cooper, J., Park, B.J., and Higgins, L. (2011) Modern Traffic Control Devices to Improve Safety at Rural Intersections. FHWA/TX‑12/0-6462-1. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University System, College Station, TX.

  26. Kehrili, M. (2012) “4(09)-21 (I)—Clarification of RRFB Flashing Pattern,” U.S. Department of Transportation FHWA Memorandum, June 13, Washington, DC.

  27. Fox, J. and Weisberg, S. (2011) An {R} Companion to Applied Regression, Second Edition. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.

  28. Pinheiro, J., Bates, D. DebRoy, S., Sarkar, D., and the R Development Core Team (2013) nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models. R package version 3.1-108.

  29. Hothorn, T., Bretz, F., and Westfall, P. (2008) “Simultaneous Inference in General Parametric Models,” Biometrical Journal, 50(3), pp. 346–363.

  30. Genz, A. and Bretz, F. (2009) Computation of Multivariate Normal and t Probabilities. Lecture Notes in Statistics, Volume 195, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.

  31. Fitzpatrick, K., Chrysler, S.T., Iragavarapu, V., and Park, E.S. (2010) Crosswalk Marking Field Visibility Study, FHWA-HRT-10-068, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  32. Agresti, A. (2007) An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis, Second Edition. Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ.

  33. Schrank, D., Eisele, B., and Lomax, T. (2012) 2011 Urban Mobility Report, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University System, College Station, TX. http://d2dtl5nnlpfr0r.cloudfront.net/tti.tamu.edu/documents/mobility-report-2012-wappx.pdf. Accessed June 21, 2014.

  34. Fitzpatrick, K., Avelar, R., and Robertson, J. (2014) “Rapid-Flashing LEDs Impact on Detection Distance,” Draft FHWA Technical Memorandum.

  35. SAE International. (2005) Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice. SAE Standard J595.

  36. What Wavelength Goes With a Color? National Aeronautics and Space Administration http://science-edu.larc.nasa.gov/EDDOCS/Wavelengths_for_Colors.html.

  37. International Commission on Illumination (CIE). (2013) CIE Definition of Brightness. Brightness | eilv. Commission Internationale De L’Eclairage, CIE Central Bureau, Kegelgasse 27, A-1030 Vienna, Austria. http://eilv.cie.co.at/term/111

  38. Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE). (2005) Vehicle Traffic Control Signal Heads: Light Emitting Diode (LED) Circular Signal Supplement. Performance Specification of the Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, DC.

  39. UDT Instruments. (2012) UDTi Photometric Sensors. http://www.gamma-sci.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/UDT-Instruments-Photometric-Sensors.pdf.

  40. McCullagh, P. and Nelder, J.A. (1989) Generalized Linear Models. Second Edition. Chapman & Hall, London, UK.

  41. R Core Team (2013) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. http://www.R-project.org/.

  42. Venables, W.N. and Ripley, B.D. (2002) Modern Applied Statistics With S. Fourth Edition. Springer, New York, NY.

  43. Kehrli, M. (2014) “4(09)-41 (I)Additional Flash Pattern for RRFBs,” U.S. Department of Transportation FHWA Memorandum, July 25, 2014, Washington, DC.

  44. Fitzpatrick, K., Turner, S., Brewer, M., Carlson, P., Ullman, Trout, N., Park, E.S., Whitacre, J., Lalani, N., and Lord, D. (2006) Improving Pedestrian Safety at Unsignalized Crossings. TCRP Report 112/NCHRP Report 562.

  45. Zegeer, C.V., Stewart, J.R., and Huang, H. (2002) Safety Effects of Marked vs. Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations: Executive Summary and Recommended Guidelines, FHWA-RD-01-075, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  46. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (2010) Highway Safety Manual. AASHTO, Washington, DC.

  47. Crash Modification Factors Clearinghouse. FHWA. http://www.cmfclearinghouse.org/index.cfm. Accessed on February 1, 2014.

  48. Making Crosswalks Safer for Pedestrians: Application of a Multidisciplinary Approach to Improve Pedestrian Safety at Crosswalks in St. Petersburg, Florida (2000) Center for Urban Transportation Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL.

  49. Van Houten, R. (1988) “The Effects of Advance Stop Lines and Sign Prompts on Pedestrian Safety in a Crosswalk on a Multilane Highway,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 21, pp. 245–251.

  50. Van Houten, R., and Malenfant, L. (1992) “The Influence of Signs Prompting Motorists to Yield Before Marked Crosswalks on Motor Vehicle-Pedestrian Conflicts at Crosswalks with Flashing Amber,” Accident Analysis & Prevention, 24(3), pp. 217–225.

  51. Van Houten, R., Malenfant, J.E.L., and McCusker, D. (2001) “Advance Yield Markings: Reducing Motor Vehicle-Pedestrian Conflicts at Multilane Crosswalks with Uncontrolled Approach,” Transportation Research Record 1773, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, pp.69–74.

  52. Van Houten, R., McCusker, D., Huybers, S., Malenfant, J.E.L., and Rice-Smith, D. (2002) “Advance Yield Markings and Fluorescent Yellow-Green RA 4 Signs at Crosswalks with Uncontrolled Approaches,” Transportation Research Record 1818, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, pp. 119–124.

  53. Pulugurtha, S., Nambisan, S.S., Dangeti, M.R., and Vasudevan V. (2011) “An Evaluation of Effectiveness of Traffic Signs to Enhance Pedestrian Safety.” 89th Annual Transportation Research Board Meeting Compendium of Papers CD.

  54. Campbell, B.J., Zegeer, C.V., Huang, H.H., and Cynecki, M.J. (2003) A Review of Pedestrian Safety Research in the United States and Abroad. FHWA-RD-03-042. FHWA, McLean, VA.

  55. Berger, W.G. (1975) Urban Pedestrian Accident Countermeasures Experimental Evaluation Studies. Vol. I—Behavioral Evaluation Studies. Vol. II—Accident Studies. Vol. III—Appendix A. DOT-HS-801-346, 347, and 348, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

  56. Fischer, E.L., Rousseau, G.K., Turner, S.M., Blais, E.J. Engelhart, C.L., Henderson, D.R., Kaplan, J.A., Keller, V.M. Mackay, J.D. Tobias, P.A., Wigle, D.E., and Zegeer, C.V. (2010) Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety and Mobility in Europe. Office of International Programs, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  57. Knoblauch, R.L. (1977) Causative Factors and Countermeasures for Rural and Suburban Pedestrian Accidents: Accident Data Collection and Analysis, DOT-HS-802-266, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

  58. Snyder, M.B. and Knoblauch, R.L. (1971) Pedestrian Safety: The Identification of Precipitating Factors and Possible Countermeasures, DOT-HS-800-403, 2 volumes, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

  59. Knoblauch, R.L., Moore, W., Jr., and Schmitz, P.R. (1978) Pedestrian Accidents Occurring on Freeways: An Investigation of Causative Factors. Accident Data Collection and Analysis, FHWA-RD-78-169/171, FHWA.

  60. Model Pedestrian Safety Program. User’s Manual. (1977, 1987) FHWA-IP-78-6, FHWA.

  61. Jacobs, G.D. (1966) “Pedestrian Behavior on a Length of Road Containing Guard Rails,Traffic Engineering and Control, 7(9), pp. 556–561, 565.

  62. Accident Prevention Effects of Road Safety Devices—Annual Report. (1969) Japan Road Association.

  63. Pécheux, K.K., Bauer, J., Miller, S., Rephlo, J., Saporta, H., Erickson, S., Knapp, S., and Quan, J. (2008) Guidebook for Mitigating Fixed-Route Bus-and-Pedestrian Collisions. TCRP Report 125.

  64. Sandels, S. (1979) The Skandia Report III, Unprotected Road Users, A Behavioral Study, Skandia Insurance Co.

  65. Fitzpatrick, K., Hall, K., Perkinson, D., Nowlin, L., and Koppa, R. (1996) Guidelines for the Location and Design of Bus Stops. TCRP Report 19.

  66. Van Winkle, J.W. and Neal, D.A. (2000) “Pedestrian-Actuated Crosswalk Flashers.” Paper presented at the ITE 2000 Annual Meeting, ITE.

  67. Fisher, J.E. (undated) The Smart and Smarter Pedestrian Warning. City of Los Angeles Department of Transportation, Los Angeles, CA.

  68. Huang, H. (2000) An Evaluation of Flashing Crosswalks in Gainesville and Lakeland. For FDOT. Available from http://www.dot.state.fl.us/Safety/ped_bike/handbooks_and_research/research/FLASHXW%20in%20gville%20lakeland.pdf. Accessed on April 20, 2011.

  69. Little, T. and Saak, J. (2010) “The Ustick Road Corridor—A Case Study in Pedestrian Crossings.” Paper presented at the ITE Annual Meeting, ITE.

  70. Sparks, J.W. and Cynecki. M.J. (1990) “Pedestrian Warning Flashers in an Urban Environment: Do They Help?” ITE Journal, 60(1), pp. 32–36.

  71. Task Force to Develop Revised Crosswalk Marking Criteria (Fitzpatrick, K., et al.). (2012) “Crosswalk Markings Application Criteria,” NCUTCD January 2012 Meeting, Council Minutes, Attachment No 12. Available at: http://www.ncutcd.org/minutes-201201.shtml. Accessed on May 26, 2015.

  72. Feldman, M. Manzi, J.G., and Mitman, M.F. (2010) “Empirical Bayesian Evaluation of Safety Effects of High-Visibility School (Yellow) Crosswalks in San Francisco, California,” Transportation Research Record 2198, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, pp. 8–14.

  73. Hawley, L., Henson, C., Hulse, A., and Brindle, R. (1992) Towards Traffic Calming: A Practitioners’ Manual of Implemented Local Area Traffic Management and Blackspot Devices. CR 126, Federal Office of Road Safety, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.

  74. Replogle, M. (1992) Bicycle and Pedestrian Policies and Programs in Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Case Study 17, National Bicycling and Walking Study. FHWA-PD-93-016. FHWA, Washington DC.

  75. Macbeth, A. (1995) “Balliol Street, City of Toronto,” Traffic Engineering Committee Workshop, Proceedings from 21 Papers, Ontario Traffic Conference, Toronto, Ontario.

  76. Huang, H.F. and Cynecki. M.J. (2001) The Effects of Traffic Calming Measures on Pedestrian and Motorist Behavior. FHWA-RD-00-104. FHWA, Washington, DC.

  77. Pegrum, B.V. (1972) “The Application of Certain Traffic Management Techniques and Their Effect on Road Safety,” National Road Safety Symposium.

  78. Polus, A. and Katz, A. (1978) “An Analysis of Nighttime Pedestrian Accidents at Specially Illuminated Crosswalks,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, 10(3), pp. 223–228.

  79. Freedman, M., Janoff, M.S., Koth, B.W., and McCunney, W. (1975) Fixed Illumination for Pedestrian Protection. FHWA-RD-76-8, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  80. Nambisan, S.S., Pulugurtha, S.S., Vasudevan, V., Dangeti, M.R., and Virupaksha, V. (2009) “Effectiveness of Automatic Pedestrian Detection Device and Smart Lighting for Pedestrian Safety,” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2140, table 2, p. 32 and table 3, p. 33. ©National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Reproduced with permission of the TRB.

  81. Tobin, J.R. (1999) “Standards & Guidelines for Midblock Crossings: Las Vegas Study.” Paper presented at the ITE 1999 Annual Meeting, ITE.

  82. Whitlock and Weinberger Transportation, Inc. (1998) An Evaluation of a Crosswalk Warning System Utilizing In-Pavement Flashing Lights, Santa Rosa, California.

  83. Evans, D. (1999) “The Light of Your Life: In-Pavement LEDs Stop Cars and Save Lives.” Traffic Technology International, 1999 Annual Review, 5(6), Surrey, United Kingdom.

  84. Godfrey, D. and Mazzella, T. (1999) “Kirkland’s Experience with In-Pavement Flashing Lights at Crosswalks.” Presented at the ITE/IMSA Annual Meeting, Lynnwood, Washington.

  85. Katz, Okitsu & Associates. (2000) City of Fountain Valley Illuminated Crosswalks: An Evaluation Study and Policy Recommendations. Available from http://www.xwalk.com/images/advocacy/ftnvlly_study.pdf. Accessed on April 20, 2011.

  86. Prevedouros, P.D. (2001) “Evaluation of In-Pavement Flashing Lights on a Six-Lane Arterial Pedestrian Crossing.” Paper presented at the ITE 2001 Annual Meeting, ITE.

  87. Huang, H., Hughes, R., Zegeer, C., and Nitzburg, M. (1999) An Evaluation of the LightGuardä Pedestrian Crosswalk Warning System. Highway Safety Research Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.

  88. Thomas, L. (undated) “What is the Effect of In-Pavement Flashing Lights on Motorist Speeds, Yielding Behavior, and Conflicts with Pedestrians?” walkinginfo.org. available at http://www.walkinginfo.org/faqs/answer.cfm?id=3903. Accessed on April 20, 2011.

  89. Van Derlofske, J.F., Boyce, P.R., and Gilson, C.H. (2003) “Evaluation of In-Pavement, Flashing Warning Lights on Pedestrian Crosswalk Safety.” TRB 2003 Annual Meeting: Washington, DC.

  90. Hakkert, A.S., Gitelman, V., and Ben-Shabat, E. (2002) “An Evaluation of Crosswalk Warning Systems: Effects on Pedestrian and Vehicle Behavior,” Transportation Research Part F, 5, pp. 275–292.

  91. Karkee, G.J., Nambisan, S.S., and Pulugurtha, S.S. (2006) “An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of an In-Pavement Flashing Light System.” 85th TRB Annual Meeting: Washington, DC.

  92. Kannel, E.J. and Jansen, W. (2004) In-Pavement Pedestrian Flasher Evaluation: Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Iowa Department of Transportation: Ames, Iowa. Available from http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/ped_flasher.pdf. Accessed on April 20, 2011.

  93. Malek, M. (2001) Crosswalk Enhancement Comparison Study. Prepared by the City of San Jose Department of Transportation.

  94. Boyce, P. and Derlofske, J.V. (2002) Pedestrian Crosswalk Safety: Evaluating In-Pavement, Flashing Warning Lights: Final Report. In cooperation with New Jersey Department of Transportation, US Department of Transportation, FHWA.

  95. Strong, C. and Kumar, M. (2006) Safety Evaluation of Yield-to-Pedestrian Channelizing Devices. Western Transportation Institute. Montana State University.

  96. Strong, C. and Bachman, D. (2008) “Safety Evaluation of Yield-to-Pedestrian Channelizing Devices,” TRB 87th Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers DVD.

  97. Zegeer, C.V., Stewart, J.R., Huang, H., and Lagerway, P. (2001) “Safety Effects of Marked Versus Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations: Analysis of Pedestrian Crashes in 30 Cities,” Transportation Research Record 1773, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, pp. 56–68.

  98. Koepsell, T., McCloskey, L., Wolf, M., Moudon, A.V., Buchner, D. Kraus, J., and Patterson, M. (2002) “Crosswalk Markings and the Risk of Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Collisions in Older Pedestrians,” Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(17), pp. 2,136–2,143.

  99. Knoblauch, R.L., Nitzburg, M., and Seifert, R.F. (2001) Pedestrian Crosswalk Case Studies: Sacramento, California; Richmond, Virginia; Buffalo, New York; Stillwater, Minnesota, FHWA-RD-00-103, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  100. Gibby, A.R., Stites, J., Thurgood, G.S., and Ferrara, T.C. (1994) Evaluation of Marked and Unmarked Crosswalks at Intersections in California: Final Report, FHWA/CA/TO-94/1, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA.

  101. Herms, B.F. (1970) Pedestrian Crosswalk Study: Accidents in Painted and Unpainted Crosswalks, San Diego Police Department Traffic Bureau, San Diego, CA.

  102. Herms, B.F. (1972) “Pedestrian Crosswalk Study: Accidents in Painted and Unpainted Crosswalks,” Highway Research Record 406, Highway Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 1–14.

  103. Huang, H., Zegeer, C., and Nassi. R. (2000) “Effects of Innovative Pedestrian Signs at Unsignalized Locations: Three Treatments,” Transportation Research Record 1705, figure 5 and figure 6, p. 50, and table 5, p. 51. ©National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Reproduced with permission of the TRB.

  104. Nabors, D., Schneider, R., Leven, D., Lieberman, K., and Mitchell, C. (2008) Pedestrian Safety Guide for Transit Agencies. FHWA-SA-07-017. FHWA, Washington, DC.

  105. Moore, R.L. and Older, S.J. (1965) “Pedestrians and Motor Vehicles are Compatible in Today’s World, Traffic Engineering, 35(12), pp. 20–23, 52–59.

  106. Swan, S. (1978) “Treatments of Overpasses and Undercrossing for the Disabled: Early Report on the State-of-the Art,” Transportation Research Record 683, TRB, Washington, DC, pp. 18–20.

  107. Templer, J. (1980) Development of Priority Accessible Networks—An Implementation Manual—Provisions for the Elderly and Handicapped Pedestrians. FHWA/IP80/8, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  108. Fitzpatrick, K. and Park, E.S. (2010) Safety Effectiveness of the HAWK Pedestrian Crossing Treatment, FHWA-HRT-10-042, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  109. Hunter-Zaworski, K. and Mueller, J. (2012) Evaluation of Alternative Pedestrian Traffic Control Devices. FHWA-OR-RD-12-09. Oregon DOT, Salem, OR.

  110. Maxwell, A., Kennedy, J. Routledge, I., Knight, P., and Wood, K. (2011) Puffin Pedestrian Crossing Accident Study. PPR507, Transport Research Laboratory, Berks, UK.

  111. Safety Benefits of Raised Medians and Pedestrian Refuge Areas. (2010) FHWA-SA-10-031. FHWA, Washington DC.

  112. Bowman, B.L. and Vecellio, R.L. (1994) “Effects of Urban and Suburban Median Types on Both Vehicular and Pedestrian Safety,” Transportation Research Record 1445, TRB, Washington, DC, pp. 169–170.

  113. Bowman, B.L. and Vecellio, R.L. (1994) “Assessment of Current Practice in Selection and Design of Urban Medians to Benefit Pedestrians,” Transportation Research Record 1445, TRB, Washington, DC, pp. 180–188.

  114. Bacquie, R., Egan, D., and Ing, L. (2001) “Pedestrian Refuge Island Safety Audit,” Paper presented at the ITE 2001 Technical Conference and Exhibit, ITE, Washington, DC, March.

  115. HSIS Summary Report: Evaluation of Lane Reduction “Road Diet” Measures on Crashes. (2010) FHWA-HRT-10-053. FHWA, Washington, DC.

  116. Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center (2009). Road Diet Training Module. Highway Safety Research Center, University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC.

  117. Tobey, H.N., Shunamen E.M., and Knoblauch, R.L. (1983) Pedestrian Trip Making Characteristics and Exposure Measures, DTFH61-81-C-00020. FHWA, Washington, DC.

  118. Safety Benefits of Walkways, Sidewalks, and Paved Shoulders. (2010) FHWA-SA-10-022. FHWA, Washington, DC.

  119. Knoblauch, R., Tustin, B., Smith, S., Pietrucha, M. (1987) Investigation of Exposure-Based Pedestrian Accident Areas: Crosswalks, Sidewalks, Local Streets, and Major Arterials. FHWA-RD-87-038, FHWA, Washington, DC.

  120. Madaniyo, M. (2010) “Sight Obstruction at At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings: A Review of the Understanding of the Meaning of Zigzag Lines,” Safety Science 48, pp. 283–287.

  121. Dougald, L., Dittberner, R., and Sripathi, H. (2012) “Safer Midblock Environments for Pedestrian and Bicycle Crossings: Experiment with Zigzag Pavement Markings,” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2299, Figure 1, p. 130. Copyright, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Reproduced with permission of the TRB.

  122. Ellis, R. and Van Houten, R. (2009) “Reduction of Pedestrian Fatalities, Injuries, Conflicts, and Other Surrogate Measures in Miami-Dade, Florida,” Transportation Research Record 2140, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, pp. 55–62.

  123. Chicago Department of Transportation (2005) “Evaluation of School Traffic Safety Program Traffic Control Measure Effectiveness.” Available from http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/policy/ygcrosswalkmarking/chicagostudy/index.htm. Accessed on April 17, 2011.

  124. Chen, L., Chen, C., and Ewing, R. (2012) “The Relative Effectiveness of Pedestrian Safety Countermeasures at Urban Intersections—Lessons From a New York City Experience,” TRB 91st Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC.

 

Federal Highway Administration | 1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE | Washington, DC 20590 | 202-366-4000
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center | 6300 Georgetown Pike | McLean, VA | 22101