U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration
1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE
Washington, DC 20590
202-366-4000
Federal Highway Administration Research and Technology
Coordinating, Developing, and Delivering Highway Transportation Innovations
REPORT |
This report is an archived publication and may contain dated technical, contact, and link information |
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Publication Number: FHWA-HRT-12-072 Date: May 2013 |
Publication Number: FHWA-HRT-12-072 Date: May 2013 |
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PDF files can be viewed with the Acrobat® Reader®
This report documents the development of a novel self-powered sensor system for continuous structural health monitoring of new/reconstruction or resurfacing of asphalt and concrete pavements. The system consists of a wireless integrated circuit sensor that consumes less than 1 microwatt of power and interfaces directly with and draws its operational power from a piezoelectric transducer. Each sensor node is self-powered and capable of continuously monitoring and storing the dynamic strain levels in pavement structure. The data from all the sensors are periodically uploaded wirelessly through radio frequency (RF) transmission using a RF reader either manually operated or mounted on a moving vehicle. The integrated wireless sensor can provide many benefits to highway agencies by helping facilitate more effective pavement maintenance and rehabilitation/preservation decision making by detecting possible damage, monitoring mechanical load history, and predicting the fatigue life of the monitored pavements.
Jorge E. Pagán-Ortiz
Director, Office of Infrastructure
Research and Development
Notice
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for the use of the information contained in this document. This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or manufacturers' names appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the objective of the document.
Quality Assurance Statement
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information to serve Government, industry, and the public in a manner that promotes public understanding. Standards and policies are used to ensure and maximize the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of its information. FHWA periodically reviews quality issues and adjusts its programs and processes to ensure continuous quality improvement.
1. Report No.
FHWA-HRT-12-072 |
2. Government Accession No. | 3 Recipient's Catalog No. | ||
4. Title and Subtitle
Smart Pavement Monitoring System |
5. Report Date May 2013 |
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6. Performing Organization Code | ||||
7. Author(s)
Nizar Lajnef, Karim Chatti, Shantanu Chakrabartty, Mohamed Rhimi, and Pikul Sarkar |
8. Performing Organization Report No.
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9. Performing Organization Name and Address Michigan State University |
10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) |
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11. Contract or Grant No.
DTFH61-08-C-00015 |
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12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Federal Highway Administration |
13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Final Report, September 2008–July 2012 |
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14. Sponsoring Agency Code
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15. Supplementary Notes
The Contracting Officer's Representative (COR) was Fred Faridazar, HRDI-20. |
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16. Abstract
This report describes the efforts undertaken to develop a novel self-powered strain sensor for continuous structural health monitoring of pavement systems under the Federal Highway Administration. Efforts focused on designing and testing a sensing system that consists of a novel self-powered wireless sensor capable of detecting damage and loading history for pavement structures. The developed system is based on the integration of a piezoelectric transducer with an array of ultra-low power floating gate computational circuits. A miniaturized sensor was developed and tested. The sensor is capable of continuous battery-less monitoring of strain events integrated over the occurrence duration time. The work conducted under this project resulted in the following:
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17. Key Words
Pavement management, Structural health monitoring, Smart self-powered sensors, Remaining fatigue life prediction |
18. Distribution Statement
No restrictions. This document is available through the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. |
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19. Security Classification Unclassified |
20. Security Classification Unclassified |
21. No. of Pages 146 |
22. Price N/A |
Form DOT F 1700.7 | Reproduction of completed page authorized |
SI* (Modern Metric) Conversion Factors
CHAPTER 2. SMART SENSING SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 3. DEVELOPMENT OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION AND DATA UPLOAD PROTOCOL
CHAPTER 4. LABORATORY MECHANICAL TESTING OF THE PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
CHAPTER 5. DESIGN OF ROBUST PACKAGING SYSTEM AND INITIAL FIELD TRIALS
CHAPTER 6. LABORATORY FATIGUE TESTING AND DEVELOPMENT OF SENSOR-SPECIFIC DAMAGE PROGNOSIS ALGORITHMS
APPENDIX A. DEVELOPMENT AND LABORATORY TESTING OF A PASSIVE TEMPERATURE GAUGE
APPENDIX C. DATASHEET AND CALIBRATION CERTIFICATE FOR USED COD GAUGE
APPENDIX D. DATASHEET FOR USED LVDTS
Figure 2. Illustration. Complete circuit implementation of self-powered event counter
Figure 3. Illustration. IIHEI process in a PMOS FG transistor
Figure 4. Illustration. IIHEI using an energy band diagram
Figure 5. Illustration. Concept of piezoelectricity-driven IIHEI
Figure 6. Illustration. Electrical model of an analog FG memory cell
Figure 7. Equation. IIHEI current
Figure 8. Equation. Source current
Figure 9. Equation. FG voltage
Figure 10. Equation. Injection current as a function of the FG voltage
Figure 11. Equation. Differential equation for the source voltage
Figure 12. Equation. System variables
Figure 14. Photo. Sensor prototype manufactured on a DIP40 packaging system
Figure 16. Graph. Theoretical and measured results for source voltage response
Figure 17. Equation. Source voltage for short-term monitoring
Figure 18. Equation. Source voltage for long-term monitoring
Figure 19. Equation. Change in source voltage
Figure 20. Graph. Injector response measured at various source currents
Figure 21. Graph. Injector response measured by using eight prototypes fabricated in different runs
Figure 22. Graph. Injector response measured under different temperature conditions
Figure 23. Illustration. Sensor connection package
Figure 24. Photo. Sensor interface board
Figure 25. Illustration. System architecture of the entire sensor
Figure 26. Illustration. Conventional OPAMP-based regulator
Figure 27. Illustration. Diodic current conveyer regulator
Figure 28. Graph. Simulated response for the OPAMP-based regulator
Figure 29. Graph. Simulated response for the diodic regulator
Figure 31. Graph. Measured responses for a fabricated diodic regulator
Figure 32. Graph. Measured responses for a fabricated diodic regulator with a longer diodic chain
Figure 33. Illustration. Piezo-sensor module
Figure 34. Illustration. RF interrogation module on separate silicon substrates/ICs
Figure 35. Illustration. Ultra-linear FG injector circuit
Figure 37. Graph. Measured resolution over a dynamic range of 4 V output
Figure 39. Illustration. Principle of HF RFID used in the sensing system
Figure 41. Equation. Input voltage
Figure 43. Illustration. Architecture of the sensor
Figure 44. Photo. Micrograph of the sensor prototyped in a 0.02-mil (0.5- ) CMOS process
Figure 45. Illustration. Envelope recovery module
Figure 47. Illustration. Hysteretic comparator used in the improved envelope recovery circuit
Figure 50. Illustration. Functional architecture of the single-slope ADC
Figure 51. Equation. Residential value in the counter
Figure 52. Graph. Digital output stream produced by the ADC when the input voltage is varied
Figure 53. Illustration. Structure of the Dickson voltage multiplier
Figure 54. Equation. Output voltage
Figure 55. Illustration. Function blocks of the modulator and demodulator
Figure 56. Illustration. Charge pump used for implementing the high-voltage generator
Figure 57. Illustration. Timing diagram of the non-overlapping clock generator
Figure 58. Graph. Sample results from fabricated prototype
Figure 59. Illustration. State machine implemented by DBM
Figure 60. Photo. Manufactured external reader and internal interface board
Figure 61. Photo. Second prototype antenna adapted to the H-shaped gauge
Figure 62. Illustration. Measured results for ASK modulation
Figure 63. Illustration. Close-up view of measured results for ASK modulation
Figure 64. Illustration. Measured results showing the sensor entering an injection state
Figure 65. Illustration. Measured results showing the sensor entering a tunneling state
Figure 68. Photo. Sensor placed under a concrete specimen
Figure 69. Photo. Receiver placed on top of the concrete specimen
Figure 70. Photo. Concrete specimen placed between a reader and receiver
Figure 72. Photo. Oscilloscope showing the voltage measured at the receiver
Figure 73. Illustration. Communication signals transmitted through concrete
Figure 74. Illustration. Communication signals transmitted through asphalt
Figure 78. Photo. Experimental setup used to validate the proposed reactive voltage-boosting method
Figure 79. Illustration. Equivalent circuit model for the setup
Figure 80. Graph. Non-linear resistive model for the voltage multiplier on the sensor IC
Figure 83. Photo. Experimental setup for the indirect tensile test
Figure 84. Photo. Command unit for the indirect tensile test setup
Figure 85. Photo. Piezoelectric disk transducer attached to the tested asphalt specimen
Figure 87. Illustration. Piezoelectric strain scavenger
Figure 88. Equation. Varitional indicator
Figure 89. Equation. Kinetic energy
Figure 90. Equation. External work
Figure 91. Equation. Potential energy
Figure 92. Equation. Variational indicator
Figure 93. Equation. Longitudinal displacement
Figure 94. Equation. Electric field
Figure 95. Equation. Piezoelectric constitutive equation
Figure 96. Equation. Stiffness
Figure 97. Equation. Applied load induced by strain
Figure 98. Equation. Electromechanical coupling and capacitance matrices
Figure 101. Photo. PVDF piezo film bounded to Plexiglas® beam
Figure 102. Photo. PVDF embedded in epoxy and bounded to Plexiglas® beam
Figure 103. Photo. PVDF piezo film embedded in epoxy and bounded to concrete
Figure 105. Photo. Setup of sensor calibration and fatigue tests
Figure 106. Photo. Slab compactor
Figure 107. Photo. Compacted slab with embedded transducers
Figure 108. Photo. Cut asphalt specimen with embedded piezoelectric generator
Figure 109. Graph. Sample of voltage response of PZT with time under applied sinusoidal strain
Figure 110. Photo. Piezoelectric transducer embedded in concrete
Figure 111. Photo. Piezoelectric transducer covered with a layer of rubber
Figure 112. Photo. Concrete specimen with embedded piezoelectric generator
Figure 113. Photo. Concrete specimen loaded in a temperature-controlled environment
Figure 118. Photo. Example of commercially available asphalt strain gauge
Figure 119. Photo. Second example of commercially available asphalt strain gauge
Figure 120. Photo. Marking the proposed locations of the gauges
Figure 121. Photo. Placing sand/binder pad and fitting gauges
Figure 122. Photo. Placing screened asphalt on top of gauges and carefully compacting
Figure 123. Photo. Compacting the unscreened asphalt over the gauge arrays
Figure 124. Photo. Laying instrument wiring and piping in aggregate base
Figure 125. Photo. Cutting grooves in cement-treated base for instrument leads
Figure 126. Photo. Collecting a concrete strain gauge using steel frames
Figure 127. Illustration. Cross section of commercialized strain gauges
Figure 128. Photo. Thermocouple covered with a layer of polyurethane foam
Figure 129. Graph. Measured output from protected and unprotected thermocouples
Figure 130. Photo. Testing of the selected protective materials under compaction condition
Figure 131. Photo. Material prototype placed in a compactor
Figure 132. Photo. Compacted asphalt material
Figure 133. Photo. Material specimen recovered from the asphalt beam after compaction
Figure 134. Illustration. Finite element model of the H-shaped package
Figure 135. Illustration. Simulated stress distributions
Figure 136. Illustration. Simulated nodal deflections
Figure 137. Photo. Manufacturing process of the used molds
Figure 138. Photo. Molds forming
Figure 139. Photo. Finished molds
Figure 140. Photo. Piezoelectric transducer embedded in Araldite® GY-6010 epoxy 80
Figure 141. Photo. Polyurethane thermal insulator coat deposited on top of the epoxy core
Figure 143. Photo. Specimens placed in the compactor
Figure 144. Graph. Measured compaction curves
Figure 145. Photo. Recovered sample 1 after compaction
Figure 146. Photo. Recovered sample 2 after compaction
Figure 147. Photo. Final version of the prototype with an external resin layer
Figure 148. Photo. Recovered specimen
Figure 149. Illustration. Layout of ASGs
Figure 150. Graph. Simulated longitudinal strain using Viscoroute
Figure 151. Graph. Measured longitudinal strain using thin H-shape and bone shape made of conathane
Figure 152. Graph. Measured longitudinal strain using thin H-shape and bone shape made of araldite
Figure 153. Graph. Measured longitudinal strain using thick H-shape and bone shape made of conathane
Figure 154. Graph. Measured longitudinal strain using thick H-shape and bone shape made of araldite
Figure 156. Photo. Prototype installation at TFHRC's ALF
Figure 157. Photo. Grinding the existing pavement before bonding gauges to the surface
Figure 158. Photo. Placed sensor prototype
Figure 159. Photo. Testing the wireless reading functions for the installed prototype
Figure 160. Photo. Different tested types of package prototypes
Figure 161. Photo. Prepared grooves for prototype installation
Figure 162. Photo. Special epoxy used to bond gauges to surface
Figure 163. Photo. Installed prototypes
Figure 165. Photo. Specimen preparation and placement
Figure 166. Photo. Manual compaction of HMA patches
Figure 167. Photo. Installed prototypes ahead of the compactor
Figure 169. Equation. Strain cumulative density
Figure 170. Graph. Cumulative distribution of strain expressed in voltage
Figure 171. Graph. Normalized density distribution expressed as normalized voltage
Figure 173. Equation. Cumulative distribution
Figure 174. Equation. Cumulative loading time
Figure 175. Equation. Mean of the cumulative strain
Figure 176. Equation. Standard deviation
Figure 177. Equation. Mean of the applied strain amplitude at time t
Figure 178. Equation. Standard deviation of the applied strain amplitude at time t
Figure 179. Equation. Mean of the damage coefficient
Figure 180. Equation. Variance of the damage coefficient
Figure 181. Equation. Reliability index
Figure 182. Equation. Probability of failure
Figure 183. Graph. Strain distribution histogram at different life stages of the beam at 100 cycles
Figure 190. Graph. Variance damage coefficient distribution
Figure 191. Graph. Variation of the mean
Figure 192. Graph. Probability of failure of one of the samples versus the number of load cycles
Figure 193. Graph. Reliability index of one of the samples versus the number of load cycles
Figure 194. Equation. Linear damage accumulation rule
Figure 195. Equation. Remaining life
Figure 196. Equation. Cumulative distribution function
Figure 197. Graph. Probability density function of the damage index at failure
Figure 198. Equation. Remaining life CDF
Figure 199. Equation. Survival probability function of the beam
Figure 200. Equation. Expectation of the survival probability function
Figure 201. Equation. Function of the damage index
Figure 205. Equation. Estimate of X as a function of mu
Figure 206. Equation. System of equations to solve for the case of an OK formulation
Figure 208. Illustration. Example of a class 9 truck used for strain response data generation
Figure 212. Illustration. Circuit implementation of a temperature-dependent measuring system
Figure 213. Graph. Variations of measured output current (Figure 212) with respect to temperature
Figure 214. Graph. Variations of measured output voltage with respect to temperature
Figure 215. Photo. Overhead view of Dynamax SM200 moisture gauge
Figure 216. Photo. Dynamax SM200 moisture gauge
Figure 217. Graph. Measured output voltage of the moisture cell powered by a 9-V battery
Figure 218. Photo. Testing setup for the moisture cell
Table 1. Hardware changes that were incorporated in different versions of the sensor IC
Table 2. Summary of performance metrics of fabricated prototypes
Table 3. Piezoelectric sensor properties
Table 4. Activation strain at different piezo configurations
Table 7. Estimated remaining life using the different fitting shape function
AC | Asphalt concrete |
ADC | Analog-to-digital converter |
ALF | Accelerated loading facility |
ASG | Asphalt strain gauge |
Caltrans | California Department of Transportation |
CDF | Cumulative density function |
CMOS | Complementary metal oxide semiconductor |
COD | Crack-opening displacement |
CRC | Cyclic redundancy check |
DBM | Digital base-band module |
DIP | Dual in-line package |
FG | Floating gate |
FHWA | Federal Highway Administration |
FPGA | Field-programmable gate array |
FWD | Falling weight deflectometer |
HF | High frequency |
HMA | Hot mix asphalt |
IC | Integrated circuit |
IIHEI | Impact-ionized hot electron injection |
LDO | Low dropout voltage |
LVDT | Linear variable differential transformer |
M-E | Mechanistic-empirical |
MOSFET | Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor |
NMOS | N-type metal oxide semiconductor |
OK | Ordinary Kriging |
OPAMP | Operational amplifier |
PCB | Printed circuit board |
PCC | Portland cement concrete |
PMOS | P-type metal oxide semiconductor |
PMS | Pavement Management System |
PSRR | Power supply rejection ratio |
PVC | Polyvinyl chloride |
PVDF | Polyvinylidene fluoride |
PWM | Pulse width modulation |
PZT | Lead zirconate titanate |
RF | Radio frequency |
RFID | Radio frequency identification |
SHA | State highway agency |
SiO2 | Silicon dioxide |
SM | Sensor model |
SPI | Serial peripheral interface |
SPS | Specific Pavement Studies |
TFHRC | Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center |
TI | Texas Instruments |
TSD | Traffic speed deflectometer |